This document provides concise essay plans for A-Level Psychology, focusing on cognition and development. Students will find structured frameworks that cover key concepts, theories, and empirical research in cognitive and developmental psychology. These essay plans serve as a valuable resource for ...
Describe and evaluate Piaget’s research in relation to the pre-operational
stage of intellectual development
Piaget conducted research in relation to the pre-operational stage. He
believed that this stage occurred at the ages between 2 and 7. His
research found that at this stage children struggle with different skills, the
main ones that he did research on was conservation (understanding that
quantity remains constant even when an objects appearance changes),
egocentrism (to see the world only from your point of view) and class
inclusion (the idea that classifications have subsets). His research into
conservation involved him placing two rows of identical counters side by
side. When the counters in one row were pushed closer together, children
in this stage usually said that there were fewer counters in this row. This
shows that they couldn’t see that the quantity remains the same even
though the appearance of the counters changed. His research into
egocentrism was demonstrated by the three mountains task – children
were shown three mountains, each with a different feature. A doll was
placed at the side, facing a different angle to the child. When the child
was asked what the doll could see, they often chose the picture that
matched the scene from their own view. This shows that the children
found it difficult to see things from another point of view. Piaget’s
research into class inclusion involved him showing 7 to 8 year olds
pictures of 5 dogs and 2 cats, and asking them ‘are there more dogs or
animals?’ children tended to respond that there were more dogs as they
cannot simultaneously see a dog as a member of the dogs and animals
class.
However, Piaget’s research into the pre-operational stage is limited. One
limitation is that the tasks tend to lack human sense and demand an
alternate response. By asking the children the same question twice, it
might make the children believe that their first answer was incorrect or
that they have to give a different answer, which doesn’t measure their
ability to conserve. McGarrigle and Donaldson replicated Piaget’s research
and found that in a control condition, most children answered incorrectly,
supporting Piaget’s findings. However, in the experimental condition, the
counters in one row had been moved closer together by accident by a
‘Naughty Teddy’. The naughty teddy’s behaviour eliminated the previous
demand characteristic (that the apparent change needed an explanation).
The children were again asked if the counters were the same and 62.5%
said they were the same, suggesting that children in the pre-operational
stage can conserve, reducing the validity of Piaget’s explanation of the
pre-operational stage.
Furthermore, Piaget’s research into egocentrism can also be criticised.
Hughes argued that if the task was made more realistic, young children
can de-centre. Hughes’ task involved a naughty boy doll who had to hide
, from two toy policemen. A 3D model of two intersecting walls was used.
Children as young as 3 and a half were able to position the boy doll where
one policeman could not see him 90% of the time, and 4 year olds could
do this 90% of the time when there were two policemen to hide from. This
shows that young children can take another perspective under more real
situations, suggesting that Piaget again underestimated children’s abilities
at the pre-operational stage.
Additionally, Piaget’s research into class inclusion is also criticised. Siegler
and Svetina tested 100 five-year-olds from Slovenia. Each undertook three
sessions of class inclusion tasks, receiving an explanation of the task after
each session. In one condition they received feedback that there must be
more animals than dogs than animals because there were 9 animals but
only 6 dogs. Another condition received feedback that there must be more
animals because dogs were a subset of animals. The scores across the
three sessions improved more for the second group, suggesting that they
had acquired a real understanding of class inclusion, again demonstrating
that Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of young children.
Read the item and then answer the questions that follow.
Two school
inspectors are
writing reports of
their recent primary
school observations.
Mrs McLean writes,
‘Students worked
alone.
They were given
tasks and materials
then had to solve Discuss Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views on the
problems development of cognition. Refer to the
by trial and error’. inspectors’ comments in your answer.
Mrs Watt writes,
‘Students worked in Piaget believed that children are motivated
to pairs of differing learn – they are pushed to learn when their
ability so existing schema does not allow them to
they could help each make sense of something new. This leads to
other and talk the unpleasant sensation of disequilibrium.
through each stage. To escape this, we adapt to the situation by
The exploring and developing our understanding
so teacher that we achieve equilibration. Piaget saw
demonstrated and children as ‘little scientists’ as he believed
advised them until they are motivated to independently learn
they could manage about and discover things about the world.
on their own.’ Piaget saw the process of learning as
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