The 1.1C People in Groups NOTES summary includes lecture notes and mandatory literature notes from each theme of the course. The notes are detailed and contain images/graphs/models from the books which the course uses in order to help readers better understand various concepts. The purpose of the ...
1.1C People in Groups (2023-2024) NOTES
(includes lecture notes)
People in groups:
1. Emotions and arousal
2. Helping behavior
3. Conformism and obedience
4. Attitudes and persuasion
5. Individual within the group
6. The other
7. Friendship and relationships
LECTURE 1: OVERVIEW AND INTRODUCTION
Classics:
1. Norman Triplett (1898)
• first social psychology experiment
• the difference between people cycling alone and those in groups
o measured the time it took to cycle alone and in groups
o Conclusion: people in groups move faster
• created a "competition machine" to measure the effort
• called the result: SOCIAL FACILITATION
2. Max Ringelmann (1913)
• when people perform in groups, they exert less effort (rope pulling example)
• why?
o coordination loss (not all pull at the same time)
o loss of motivation ("they won’t notice if I don't work as hard anymore")
• called: RINGELMANN EFFECT/ SOCIAL LOAFING
EMOTIONS AND AROUSAL
Emotion = complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral and physiological elements.
Emotions are how individuals deal with matters or situations they find personally significant. (A.P.A.)
Mood is not the same as emotions. It is more subtle and longer lasting.
1
, History of Emotion Theories
o William James' Theory of Emotion --- stimulus (bear) -> arousal -> emotion (fear)
The body will react in a specific way (a distinct pattern) of physiological responses, after that you feel the
emotion. BUT there are some similarities between physiological reactions to different stimuli.
o Two Factor Theory of Emotions
Physiological response + Cognitive aspect = Interpretation of emotion
Experiment:
1) crossing the big scary bridge >>arousal>>more tendency to sexual interpretation
2) adrenaline injection>>anger
THEME 1: HOW DO YOU FEEL TODAY?
• Arousal = a physical state of arousal/ physiologically activated state.
e.g.: trembling hands, increased heart rate
o influences our emotions;
• Emotions = affective responses characterized by loosely linked changes in behavior, subjective
experience and physiology.
o what we experience on a daily basis in situations which we deem personally relevant.
• Moods = affective responses, but not the same as emotions
Emotions Moods
easier to notice more subtle
last shorter longer lasting
clear target/object they are directed at no clear target/object they are directed at
3 types of change characterize behavior:
1. behavioral aspect
2. experiential aspect
3. physiological aspect
1. Behavioral Aspect
• Charles Darwin Hypothesis: our facial expressions are vestiges of our ancestors’ basic adaptive patterns.
e.g.: anger - furrowed brows
-widened eyes >>facial movements for biting
-open mouth with exposed teeth
Darwin also theorized our facial expressions are universal (even children born blind portrayed the same
facial expressions despite never seeing them).
Experiments with isolated cultures proved that the meaning of the basic emotional expressions transcend
cultural and geographic boundaries.
BUT, even if perception of emotions is similar, the DISPLAY is not.
'Display rules' = cultural rules that govern the expression of emotion; these displays also vary across
genders and individuals.
2. Experiential Aspect
• Scientists tried to make a 'classification scheme' for emotions (people use words with similar meanings),
and also a scheme that 'describes emotions across dimensions'. Neither describes what emotions feel like
though.
3. Physiological Aspect
Emotions differ in how they "feel", both in the head, and the body.
2
, THEORIES RELATED TO EMOTIONS AND AROUSAL:
Details/Problems/Counter-
Theory What it states Example
arguments
A stimulus causes an
'I tremble because I feel afraid.'
Common emotion, which in turn
Stimulus>>Experience>>Arousal
Sense Theory causes a physical
bear >> fear >> arousal
change.
Character of physical
change is very important.
First you become aware
-no mention of cognitive
of a physical change, 'I feel afraid because I tremble.'
James-Lange evaluation;
then you feel the Stimulus >> Arousal >> Emotion
Theory -similar physical reactions to
emotion. (emotion bear >> heart pounds, sweat >> fear
different emotions>>can't
depends on arousal)
distinguish; (both by
Cannon)
Stimulus causes brain
'The bear makes me tremble and feel afraid.'
activity which
Cannon-Bard Stimulus >> Subcortical >> Experience & Arousal
simultaneously causes
Theory bear>> brain activity >>fear and arousal
physical changes and
! emotion and arousal are independent of each other
the emotion itself.
!!Problem: Misattribution =
Emotions depend on a person misinterprets the
both physical reaction source of an emotion
'I label my trembling as fear because I see the
and cognitive process (adrenaline injection
Schachter- situation as dangerous.'
(one's judgement experiment, subjects didn't
Singer Theory Stimulus >> Arousal >> Appraisal >> Experience
/comprehension of why know, found that when
bear >> phys. change >> scary situation >> fear
the physical reaction people are insecure about
occurs). emotional state, interpret it
by looking at others)
'Affective neuroscience' = field that uses cognitive neuroscience research methods to study emotion and related
processes.
Emotions are distinguishable biologically through brain pattern activation.
CAPILANO BRIDGE EXPERIMENT - Dutton and Aron (1974) (tests Misattribution)
Hypothesis: Attractive woman will be seen as more attractive by those who feel a strong emotion (fear) when
encountered, compared to those who don't.
Experiment 1:
Natural setting - outside
IV: location of the experiment
DV: level of attraction felt by the subjects.
Control Group (wooden bridge, 23); Experimental Group (scary bridge, 22);
Both groups approached by a female interviewer, asked to participate in a study, handed a questionnaire
and asked to write a story related to a woman. Stories were scored from 1 to 5 based on the amount of sexual
3
, content. After, woman asked whether subject wanted number for further information in the future (second
measure of attraction). Replicated with a male interviewer as well.
The Hypothesis was verified.
The experiment suffers from interpretative problems.
Uncontrolled variables:
• different subject populations on the 2 bridges;
• experimental subjects may be less able to phone the interviewer;
• sexual deprivation of subjects;
• personality variables;
Experiment 2:
Subjects from the same population.
Same IV and DV as Experiment 1.
Control group: did not cross the bridge; Experimental group: crossed the bridge and went to the park after. This
time there was no male interviewer.
Filled Nr. who Usable Sexual image.
Accepted phone nr.
questionnaire phoned questionnaire score
Control group 23/35 19/23 7/23 22/25 1.92
Experimental
25/34 20/25 13/20 23/25 2.99
group
Hypothesis verified.
Uncontrolled variables:
o differential behavior;
o nonverbal communication;
o interviewer appeared differently in the two conditions (gestalt created by bridge may have made
interviewer appear as a 'damsel in distress');
*Experiment 3:
Subjects: 80 male freshmen at university, volunteers;
IV: shock which subject will receive and which will confederate will receive; DV: level of arousal, sexual
imagery;
Subjects in an experimental room with articles about research electric shock - learning link.
Experimenter brings a female confederate. Explains experiment, shock receive, heads/tails.
Subjects fill a 3-part questionnaire (anxiety, attraction, sexual imagery) scored 1 to 5.
When anticipating a stronger shock, participants were more afraid than small shock.
When anticipating a strong shock with a female confederate, they were less afraid than if
with a male participant.
No significant difference between confederate receiving a strong or weak shock.
Participants expectation of administration strong shock vs weak shock did not produce a
'damsel in distress' effect.
sexual image talk was higher when both expected a strong shock. No conclusion for when
confederate expected a weak shock.
CONCLUSION: STRONG EMOTION INCREASES THE ATTRACTION OF THE PARTICIPANT TO THE
FEMALE CONFEDERATE. Also confirms that arousal strengthens (sexual) emotions.
KASSIN (11th Ed.):
Chapter 3 (page 62 - 64): 'Facebook as a Venue for Social Comparison'
Two types of usage:
1. Active usage: people post information about themselves and communicate with others
4
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