Zusammenfassung
Summary LECTURES & BOOK for B&E2: Behavior in Organizations (Radboud University Nijmegen)
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Summary of relevant book chapters and lectures (2019/2020). Achieved grade was an 8.5!
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Summary Behavior & Environment 2
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Samenvatting B&E2: Behaviour In Organisations (inclusief afbeeldingen en voorbeelden Q&A sessie)
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Behavior and Environment 2 Lecture & Book Summary
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Inhaltsvorschau
Job Analysis & SelectionJob analysis
- Job analysis is a method for systematic collection, analysis and description of jobs and the
human attributes necessary to perform them
Two approaches:
1. Job-oriented
- Task descriptions describe what do people do in a particular job
- Characteristics of tasks can be used to compare the nature of tasks across different kinds
of jobs. Tasks can be divided into a hierarchy with five levels of specificity: position, duty,
task, activity and element
- The result is a job description
2. Person-oriented
- List of Knowledge, Skills, Abilities and Other personal characteristics (KSAOs) that the
person performing the job must possess
- While a task defines what a person does, KSAOs describe the sort of person needed for a
job
- The result is a personal profile or personal specification.
The difference between ability and skill is that ability (empathize with characters as actor) is about
the persons potential do develop a skill and skill (showing emotion) is what is needed in a job.
Job levels:
Position→collection of duties that can be performed by a single individual
Duty→major component of a job and is accomplished by performing one or more associated tasks
(can be subdivided into tasks like reading script, practice out loud)
Tasks→can be subdivided into activities like open PDF document to read script etc. (really basic)
Purposes of job analysis:
Provides clarity on tasks and responsibilities, which can be useful for:
- Recruitment and selection→you want to approach the people that are interested in
these tasks
- Career development→you want person in job to develop these necessary skills/abilities.
Competency systems reward employees for acquiring the knowledge and skills needed
to improve performance and move up on the career ladder. The KSAO requirements for
each career ladder are provided by job analysis
- Training and schooling→to help person develop a certain skill
- Performance appraisal→reward those who perform well; for that you need to know
what tasks/duties are
- Legal issues→job analysis provides a list of relevant KSAOs as basis for hiring rather than
irrelevant personal characteristics; so, there are essential functions (determined by job
, analysis) for a job and if a person cannot perform them it is legal to not hire him/her, but
it is illegal if these functions are nonessential
Methods for job analysis:
- Subject matter experts (SME)→provide detailed knowledge and requirements of the
jobs, either in interviews or questionnaires
- Doing work→ as an employee under similar conditions is a way of collecting job analysis
information (costly, time consuming)
- Observations→also expensive and time consuming, but good clarity
- Mostly SMEs use interviews and questionnaires
Ways to create a job analysis from this data are:
1. Job Components Inventory (JCI) is developed to match the job demands to the employee
characteristics. Uses information through the KSAOs and answers the question: how can we
match the job demands to personal characteristics?. Five components: use of tools and
equipment, perceptual and physical requirements, mathematics, communication and
decision making and responsibility.
2. Occupational information network (O*NET)→computer-based resource for job-related
information on groups of jobs sharing common characteristics
3. Functional Job Analysis (FJA) is based on observations and interviews. Data bases are
available to see what is required for a certain job. Result is a description in words.
4. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is based on questionnaires and interviews based on
KSAO profile. Result is a profile with numbers (percentile scores).
5. Task Inventory (TI) is used to have a comparison within the job and JCI, FJA and PAQ are
used to compare different jobs. TI gives you the information to compare within a job (how
important are certain tasks within a job compared to each other).
Pros and cons:
- Pros and cons depend on purpose of job analysis and practical concerns (like costs)
- PAQ better suited to job analysis; FJA is better for job description (FJA is a text and PAQ
has numbers, which makes it easier to compare with other jobs)
- TI is reliable but takes a lot of time to administer
- FJA is suited for many different jobs, but demands a great deal of training
Job evaluation:
- Quantitative techniques to determine salary levels of jobs.
- Point method→determining the characteristics that will serve as the basis for the
evaluation (compensable factors) such as responsibility, required skill/education; judging
the degree to which a job has each factor and points for each job are summed; then,
plotting the actual salaries for each job in an organization against points totals for each
job. If salary system if fair→plot should be a straight line
- Comparable worth→different but comparable jobs should be paid the same (reducing
salary inequities between men and women
Performance appraisal:
- Organizations base promotion/pay raises on job performance
- Merit pay systems→tie raise to the level of job performance
,Performance criteria:
- Theoretical criterion→theoretical construct of what good performance is, rather than
how it is measured
- Actual criterion→the way in which the theoretical criterion is assessed
- Actual criterion often provides only an estimate of the theoretical criterion, which can be
explained by criterion contamination (can arise from biases in criterion, so if people´s
judgements are used), criterion deficiency (means that actual criterion does not
adequately cover entire theoretical criterion) and criterion relevance (extent to which
the actual criterion assesses the theoretical criterion it is designed to assess; so like
construct validity)
- For some purposes it may be better to assess performance on an individual task and for
other it is better to assess entire person´s job performance
- Dynamic criterion→variability of performance over time (research says that the best
performers do not necessarily remain the best in the long-term)
- Contextual performance→extra voluntary things employees do to benefit their co-
workers and organizations
Methods to assess performance:
Objective measures→counts of employees behavior (absences, incidents etc.)
- Cecessary if organization has incentive system that pays employees for what they
produce; they are easy and useful to compare, but also not useful for every job
Subjective measures→
- Critical incident is an event reflecting either effective or ineffective behavior by an
employee
- Halo errors occur when rater gives an individual the same rating across all rating
dimensions, despite differences in performance; true halo means that employee
performs at the same level on all dimensions;
- Leniency error occurs when rater rates everyone at favorable end of rating scale;
severity error occurs when rater rates everyone at unfavorable end of rating scale;
central tendency errors occur when rater rates everyone in the middle
- Rate error training teaches raters the errors so they try to avoid them
- Frame of reference trainings are more promising in increasing rating accuracy without
reducing rating errors;
- 360-degree feedback→use of multiple perspectives for manager feedback (peers,
subordinates and supervisors on several dimensions of performance); results are
compared to managers own ratings of performance (like the application in Rabo-bank)
- Critical incident→event reflecting either effective or ineffective behavior by an
employee
Personnel selection
Because we want to be able to predict whether a person will function well in the job
Human resource plans→deal with the organization´s need for people and with providing possible
people to hire (planning→acquiring applicants→selecting applicants→hiring)
The selection process:
Application phase: already includes some form of pre-selection (the way a vacancy is set up may
attract different people); organizations use six different sources: advertising, employee referral,
employment agencies, school recruiters, walk-ins, and web; applicants from inside source (employee
referral receive more information about job and tend to be more satisfied)
Selection phase:
- Prediction→choosing criterion (standard you can use to measure performance; number
of errors a doctor makes during surgery or monthly sales of sales person) and predictors
, (standard for predicting performance; score on an IQ test or score on personality
questionnaire). Validation study→if criterion and predictor correlate with each other,
the predictor can be used to predict the applicants likely job performance
Conducting a validation study:
1. Conduct job analysis (information about tasks in a job and KSAOs of employees needed)
2. Specify job performance criteria
3. Choose predictors (see assessment methods for selection and placement)
4. Validate predictors: concurrent validation study→both criterion and predictor scores are
collected from sample of participants at same time; predictive validation study→predictors
are measured before criterion (so, not used for hiring, but years after the criterion is
assessed to show whether the predictor can be used as a valid selection device)
5. Cross-validate (results of one sample replicated with other sample)
An instrument has to be test-sensitive→able to detect differences between persons!
Job analyses are mostly conducted in jobs that have a high risk regarding costs. Job analysis helps for:
- Criteria specification (how is performance measured?)
- Choose predictors (how can we predict this performance?)
- Calculation of cross validity (if we do the test again, would it result in same findings?)
Multiple hurdles approach→there is a passing score for each predictor
Regression approach→score from each predictor is used in an equation to predict numerical
estimate of criterion
Two approaches to predict performance:
1. Sign approach→measuring personality characteristics and they have some correlation with
job performance
2. Sample approach→behavior/job performance is best predicted by past behavior
Assessment methods for selection and placement:
- Tests (achievement tests, aptitude tests, IQ tests, personality tests, assessment centres
which is a combination of several methods and one of such methods is often work
samples)
- Power test→unlimited time; speed test→time limit
- Some personality tests assess a single personality trait and personality inventories
evaluate multiple dimensions
- Integrity test→predicts whether or not an employee will engage in counterproductive or
dishonest behavior on the job
- Vocational interest tests→matches interests or personality of test taker to those of
people in different occupations to see how well they fit in
- Biographical inventory→detailed information about experiences at school, work, other
areas
- Interviews take place in unstructured, moderately structured or structured way (longer
and more detailed answers than questionnaires)
- Work sample→simulation of job, so performing job under standardized conditions
- Assessment centers→combination of multiple tests and mostly conducted in costly
environments/jobs. Often role-play exercise. Job analysis serves as basis to assessment
centers, because you need to know what is essential to the job. You need trained
assessors (trained to avoid biases and judgments). In-basket experience (pretending its
first day at new job and dealing with each item). Leaderless group exercise (competitive
or comperative; shows how a person behaves in group context and deals with for
example another dominant person in the group; gives insight to how you react in certain
situations)
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