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Introduction to Research Methodology Notes for Theory Exam
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Summary Final exam: Social Research Methods - Alan Bryman
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Lecture 1a: Introduction and Research DesignLecture 1b: Research Designs and Validity
Lecture 1b Part 2: Falsification
Lecture 1b Part 3: Experiments
Lecture 1b Part 4: Causality
Lecture 2: Models, Research Questions, Hypothesis
Lecture 2: Hypothesis
Lecture 2b Part 2: Measurement Levels
Lecture 3: Experiments
Lecture 4: Surveys
LECTURE 4B, 24. 9. 2020 – SURVEYS & SAMPLING
Lecture 5: Content Analysis
Lecture 1a: Introduction and Research Design
Bryman talks about “Research Strategy” and distinguishes between qualitative
(empirical-interpretive) and quantitative (empirical-analytical) research – stereotypically
qualitative is considered more subjective and theory generating, whereas quantitative is
considered more objective and theory testing
Qualitative and Quantitative Research:
● Qualitative: empirical-interpretive
● Quantitative: empirical-analytical
Epistemology
,Positivism: application of methods of natural sciences for the study of social reality. We
study social reality and try to apply the methods of social sciences to that. Researchers say
we need to take ourselves out of whatever it is we are studying. We have to be objective
researchers standing on the sidelines.
Interpretivism: there is a difference between people and the objects of the natural sciences.
Researchers should focus on the subjective meaning of social action. As a researcher, you
have to place yourself within that circle of people who are doing something and you have to
become part of it. This has consequences, as you can’t pretend that you are an objective
researcher standing on the sidelines.
Two Scientific Approaches:
Empirical-Analytical (Quantitative)
● Characterised as positivism and objectivism.
● Observe, measure from researcher’s perspective: empirical because we test what we
observe.
● We aim to be outside, not judging, only describing.
● Observation = empiricism
● Rule out alternative explanations
● Explaining - want to explain social processes
● Experiments, surveys, content analysis, observation, etc.
● Objectivism - the underlying reality, such as employee morale, has the characteristics
of an object (i.e., objective reality).
Empirical-Interpretive (Qualitative)
● Observe, interpret from participants’ perspectives.
● We try to understand what a person is going through, not by placing ourselves on the
outside, but by taking part in it.
● As a person, you create meaning in interaction with another person.
● Constructionism: you construct meaning.
● Interpretivism: you are part of what you are trying to interpret (qualitative research)
● Individual interviews, focus group interviews, observation.
,Basics of Social Research
● Public: it must be open and accessible to all. Allow others to check research, critique
findings.
● Objective: not affected by researcher’s views, opinions. Your personal views,
opinions, should not matter.
● Empirical: Based on real world observations.
● Systematic, cumulative: Integrating prior research, general patterns.
● Predictive: Allows us to formulate expectation, predictions.
If we judge the quality of research, then we talk about:
- Validity: are our conclusions correct? We want our conclusions to be valid/ correct.
- Reliability: we want our findings to be reliable, and consistent..
- Replication: If we repeat our research in the same setting, the outcomes should be
comparable.
Although these concepts apply to qualitative research as well, their use and interpretation
is different.
Lecture 1b: Research Designs and Validity
Empirical Cycle (5 steps):
Observation: we see things going on in the world. Typically, we look at people, institutions,
the press, the media, how they behave both as an individual entity and as a collective. We try
to look for patterns, are people always doing things the same way? If we can’t detect
patterns, we can’t start with explanations. If people do things randomly, then it doesn’t make
sense for us to explain what’s going on, because they might do something completely
different next time. When we look for patterns, what strikes us as odd, or typical, then we
, can start questioning what’s going on here. Are people doing something in relation to
something else? Are people who do something like this, are they unlikely to do something like
that?
Induction: We try to start drawing relationships: from specific observations to general
explanations. “I think that people tend to do this.. Because of that..”. Anything that you can
think of, why you think this is happening in the world the way it is. Then you also think: Will it
always happen in that way? Initially, if you go from specific observations to general
explanations, then you’re creating theory. Theory formation is the phase of induction. You
see something, you think of explanations, and you try to come up with a coherent wider
explanation. And then if you have that wider explanation, the theory, then you move on to
deduction.
Deduction: General explanations to specific explanations.; formulating testable hypothesis.
You have the theory that predicts and explains certain behaviours. If you put people in this
situation, they are likely to do this. From the theory, then you can formulate hypotheses.
Statements about the world that you can actually test.
Testing: Once you have a hypothesis, you can put your theory to the test. Hypothesis are
what we use to test theories empirically.
Evaluation: You reflect on your findings. Reflection: do the results support hypothesis
formulated on the basis of theory? I observed something, then I created a theory to try and
explain that. From that theory, I deduced hypothesis that were testable. Then I put it to the
test, and I analysed the findings. Then I reached the conclusion: Was my theory correct or
not? Does it perfectly explain everything I saw? Now that I know this, is there something I
overlooked?
In empirical research, we often do parts of the empirical cycle. Sometimes, there is already a
theory that you want to test.
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