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Samenvatting Alle verplichte papers samengevat Sustainable intervention methods MAN-BCU347
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Samenvatting Sustainable Intervention MethodsArtikelen:
College 1, Randolph Environmental land use planning and management, chapter 4
Driven primarily by increasing democratization, the environmental movement, the growth of
community-based organizations, and the need to integrate diverse values, resolve conflicts, build
consensus, and generate knowledge and creative solutions, this evolving practice is referred to as
collaborative environmental planning (CEP).
Strong democracy, shared and social capital, informality, and power
Achieving the next level of environmental improvement and sustainable communities will depend
less on the mandates of government and more on the actions of people, communities, industries,
nongovernmental organizations, landowners, and others, working together, often voluntarily.
One of the key ingredients of a strong participatory democracy and an effective civil community is its
social capital. Social capital is a community's stock of social trust, networks, and civic experience,
upon which people draw to solve problems collectively.
A system capacity for resilience is its ability to absorb perturbations without being undermined or
becoming unable to adapt self-organize and learn.
Social capital is one of three components of shared capital. In addition to social capital, successful
collaboration requires intellectual capital, or the collective knowledge of problems and potential
solutions, and political capital, the capacity for organization and influence necessary to achieve
results in the political process.
Without social capital it is difficult to achieve collective knowledge or a common sense of purpose.
People retreated from community activities to their private realms due to suburbanization, sprawl,
and dependency on the automobile; increased job mobility, reducing the stability of local
populations, demographic changes including more single person households.
The social forces continue but more recently there appears to be an increasing desire for
community. A louder cry for more input from affected parties in public and private decisions that
affect neighborhoods, communities, and the environment; and the use of the same technologies
that isolated people in the 1990s to connect them today through electronic social networks. These
trends have created both communities of place for more informal interaction in neighborhoods and
public spaces and communities of practice for more organized interaction about a topic or issue of
common interest.
Informality on the other hand is unregulated organic behavior that is more chaotic than formal
structures, but embraces affective involvement, has a freer flow of information, and tends to level
status and be more creative.
Collaborative planning can result in network power, the shared ability of linked agents to alter their
environment in ways that are advantageous to them both individually and collectively. Network
power can emerge if the agents or stakeholders represent a diverse range of interests and
knowledge relevant to the issues at hand.
1
,The evolution of collaborative planning: from nonparticipation to collaborative learning
First generation public information period (60s-70s) came with the social unrest of the 60s,
demanding greater public participation in government decisions. Towards the end of this period,
new techniques, such as public advisory committees and focus groups began to improve
opportunities for public input.
Second generation (70s-80s) was characterized by: ‘tell us what you want and we will go away and
decide what to do.
In the early 90s (third generation) public involvement experience began showing that more
collaborative means of engaging stakeholders in resolving conflicts, building consensus, and
developing options could lead to more acceptable decisions. Planning and elected officials began to
realize that giving some authority to stakeholder groups could pay off in plans and decisions that had
less opposition. This third generation of collaborative planning and decision making was
characterized by ‘tell us what you want an we will figure out what to do together’. Collaborative
planning creates a forum in which diverse and interdependent participants can develop a shared
vision, resolve conflict, build consensus and formulate creative solutions
Fourth generation recognized that simply tapping the values and knowledge of stakeholders,
resolving conflicts and building consensus to inform decisions are still limited efforts in the quest for
better and more creative solutions and effective implementation. This emerging approach focuses
on the generation of new knowledge through joint learning and on stakeholder involvement in
implementation or co-management.
Fourth generation: collaborative learning and co-management
Collaborative learning among stakeholders to share knowledge and understanding. In practice,
stakeholders have often discovered that their disagreement result from limited knowledge and
faulty assumptions. Collaborative learning allows them to investigate data and information together
thus creating a common knowledge base and new assumptions that can lead to consensus and new
solutions.
2
,Learning networks → a community of practice with multiple-stakeholder collaboration to nurture
collective expertise among members. Through the use of a mix of communication techniques, media
and face-to-face interaction, participants strengthened relationships, built trust etc.
Joint fact finding → promotes learning to create base for environmental decision making.
Participatory appraisal → stakeholders develop and share information and learn together.
Digital democracy and electronic networks → electronic social networks have become an integral
part of the world, we communicate together through this.
Open source planning and crowdsourcing → using internet to gather information and local
knowledge.
Collaborative community design → aims to integrate the perceptions and insights of the
participants to develop innovative and acceptable results.
Adaptive collaborative management → not only social and intellectual capital to reach collective
decisions, but also political capital to push the decision or plan through the political process of
approval or adoption. The process does not end there. Stakeholder groups should also oversee, and
in some cases play a role in the implementation of plans to ensure completion and accountability.
Volunteer groups often play important roles in implementing watershed improvement plans, water
quality monitoring, stream restoration projects, habitat and trail improvements, and their
environmental projects. Collaborative management, or co-management, and it has become a key
element of the fourth generation of collaborative environmental planning. Co-management is based
largely on the common pool resource management theories of Elinor Ostrom.
Natural resource co-management → collective action by stakeholders working together with a
government agency to undertake resource management or plan implementation. Co- management
can promote learning, develop shared capital and build both community and ecosystem resilience.
Community based sustainable programs → localities, often led by citizens, community groups, and
local universities, take the initiative for environmental protection and community development.
Citizen environmental and sustainable monitoring → monitoring the environment (birds, water
quality, wetland conditions etc.)
Considerations in developing a collaborative planning program
Action collaboratives seek change through action projects; focus on direct on-the-ground activities,
such as monitoring, education, and restoration; and involve citizens and community groups.
Organizational collaboratives seek change through organizations; focus on programs and budgets;
and involve government agencies, local stakeholders, and interest groups. Policy collaboratives seek
change through policy initiatives; focus on new management approaches; and involve policy makers,
government agencies, and regional stakeholders.
While type of collaborative may vary, they all have some common motivations and objectives:
- Sharing information and building an understanding by educating and learning from the
public and engaging in joint fact finding.
- Making wise decisions and building support for them by addressing common problems and
resolving disputes
- Getting the work done by mobilizing resources and sharing management responsibilities
3
, - Developing agencies, organizations, and communities by building staff capacities and
enhancing social capital and community
If the process begins too late, after conflicts have become entrenched, it is difficult for the
stakeholders to find consensus. Perhaps most important for planning, participants in the
collaborative process can engage in learning process to formulate creative solutions to solve
problems and achieve their shared vision. Collaboratives apply some basic elements to achieve these
objectives. They aim to involve a wide range of stakeholders, to strike the appropriate balance
between technical information and political factors to take a broad holistic approach and to seek
integrated and creative solutions.
Objectives of collaborative environmental planning:
- Resolve conflict
- Develop a shared vision
- Formulate creative solutions
Elements of collaborative environmental planning and decision making
- Stakeholder involvement
- Scientific basis (strong scientific information on which to base decision)
- Holistic, proactive approach (understanding of environmental problems and context)
- Integrated solutions (wide range of creative solutions to problems)
Stakeholder involvement is the hearth of collaboration:
- Building on common ground
- Creating effective and enduring processes and opportunities for interaction
- Focusing on the problem in new ways
- Fostering a sense of responsibility and commitment by transforming them to us
- Understanding that partnerships are people and social interactions are essential by focusing
on individuals, not organizations
- Practicing a proactive and entrepreneurial approach by enlisting community leaders and
local champions
The aim of inclusiveness makes the identification of stakeholders important; excluding an important
stakeholder can undermine the process. Stakeholder groups lacking authority or responsibility are
rarely successful. The process should be well structured, with a clear schedule, explicit milestones,
and the use of small working groups. Collaboration works best in small subgroups with a limit of
about 15 people. One of the greatest challenges of a stakeholder group is achieving trust among
participants, especially with a group of diverse interests. The respect and understanding necessary
for trust can be facilitated by getting to know one another through social functions (usually involving
food and beverages). Collaboration is a process in which the group as a whole must be self-
governing and in which all participants are equally represented in the making of joint decisions. Still,
an effective leader must guide and coordinate that decision-making process. The main goal of
stakeholder involvement is collaborative learning.
Opportunities and barriers in collaborative environmental planning
Stakeholder involvement:
- Identify stakeholders
- Establish authority
4
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