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Chapter 7
The media and the public interest
Public interest has historical roots in identifying the good of the society or nation. In more modern
times: to apply management and ownership of public utilities. Matters cannot be left to free market.
Applied to mass media, meaning: media carry out number of tasks in a contemporary society and it is
general interest that these are performed well. Implies: we should have media system that is
operated according to same basic principles governing the rest of society.
Problem: public control of all media is inconsistent with freedom of expression. Also, media are
usually established not to serve public interest. There are conflicting versions of what it good for a
society as a whole. Media should be able to do what they want, within the limits of the law. Where
media are run on commercial basis, the media’s view of what the public interest tends to equate it
with what interests the public shifts responsibility for norms.
Two main versions of what constitutes the public interest and how its consent is established:
- Majoritarian view: issue should be settled by reference to the popular vote. This would tend
to equate the public interest with ‘giving the public what it wants.’
- Unitarian view: public interest decided by reference to some single dominant value. Leads to
a paternalistic system in which decision about what is good are decided by experts.
In practice of media politics, agreement on the main components of the public interest in respect of
mass media, going well beyond the minimum requirement of causing no harm.
Main public interest criteria for media:
Structure:
- Freedom of publication
- Plurality of ownership
- Extensive reach
- Diversity of channels and forms
Content:
- Support of democratic political system and of public order
- Diversity of information, opinion and culture
- High quality of information and culture
- Respectful of international obligations and human rights
- Avoiding harm to society and individuals
Media freedom as a principle
‘It is not possible to advance definitions of democracy which do not recognize the integral role of
media to the actual functioning of all its elements.’ Many former non-democratic regimes slowly
liberalizing mass media helped to develop pluralism in political attitudes etc.
Nevertheless, there are different versions of freedom. Freedom is a condition, rather than a criterion,
and applies primarily to media structure.
Distinction between freedom of media and freedom of expression. Freedom of expression is a much
wider right. Refers to substance or content of what is communicated, while freedom of the press
refers to one main vehicle. Important point is that in law and regulation, the safeguarding of freedom
tends to have been transferred from the substance to the means.
Public benefits of media freedom:
- Systematic and independent public scrutiny of those in power and an adequate supply of
reliable information about their activities
- Stimulation of an active and informed democratic system and social life
- Opportunities to express ideas, beliefs and views about the world
- Continued renewal and change of culture and society
- Increase in amount and variety of freedom available
,Freedom at the level of structure
Freedom of expression has dual aspect: offering a wide range of voices and responding to a wide-
ranging need. For benefits of freedom to be realized, certain conditions are called for:
- Absence of censorship, unhindered right to publish and no obligation to publish
- Independence from excessive control and interference by owners
- Equal rights for citizens: access to channels of expression as well as access as receivers
- Competitiveness of system, with limits to media concentration and cross-ownership
- Freedom for news media to obtain information from relevant sources
These conditions of structure leave many issues unresolved. Potential conflicts embedded in
requirements. 1) Freedom of public communication can never be absolute but has to recognize limits
set by private interests of others. 2) conflict of interest between owners channels and those who
want access to channels but have no power. 3) conditions place control of freedom to owners of
media and don’t recognize right to freedom of publication of media workers. 4) imbalance between
what communicators want to say and what others want to hear. 5) may be necessary for government
to intervene in media structure to secure some freedom that are not delivered by unfettered system.
Freedom at level of performance
Expected benefits of freedom of publication do give some indication of additional criteria and
expectations (to asses freedom). For instance, in respect of news and information, the media are
expected to make use of their freedom to follow an active and critical editorial policy and to provide
reliable and relevant information. The more that the qualities of content mentioned are missing, the
more we may suspect that the structural conditions of media freedom are not being met.
In order to assess media performance across countries and over time, a two-dimensional concept of
mass media’s democratic requirements was developed:
- Vertical media function: requirement for media to disseminate information about the
activities of political office-holders.
- Horizontal media function: assessed in terms of how the media succeed in constituting an
open public sphere that reflects the diversity of the society.
These functions can be measured at level of media structure and media content. Overview of this on
page 209.
Media equality as a principle
Principle of equality is valued in democratic societies, has to be translated into more specific
meaning when it is applied to the mass media.
Equality at the level of structure
Should lead to different interests in society having the same mass media access opportunities to send
and receive. Unlikely to be realized, although steps may be taken by public policy to put right some of
the inequalities. Institution of broadcasting is one means in this direction.
Equality at the level of performance
Equality calls for no discrimination in amount of access available to senders or receivers.
Considerations of equality take us into the area of objectivity. Real chances of media equality depend
on level of social and economic development of a society and the capacity of its media system.
Equality also depends: access (equal and proportional), diversity (change and reach), and objectivity
(neutrality, fairness, truth). Figure on page 201.
Media diversity as a principle
Diversity is important because it underpins the normal processes of progressive change in society. It
presupposes that the more and different channels of public communication there are, the better.
Diversity seems rather empty of any value direction about ‘what’ should be communicated.
Diversity in what media have to offer is direct benefit to audiences and can be reflection of a wide
range of access to channels of publication. There can be too much of a good thing fragmented
society.
,Main public benefits expected from diversity:
- Opening the way for social and cultural change
- Providing a check on the misuse of freedom
- Enabling minorities to maintain their separate existence in a larger society
- Limiting social conflicts by increasing understanding between opposed groups and interests
- Adding generally to the richness and variety of cultural and social life
- Maximizing the benefits of the free marketplace of ideas
Diversity at the level of structure
Requirements are much the same as for equality. There should be many and independent media
firms to match the requirements of society. In accounting for diversity of provision, the extent to
which real alternatives are on offer can be registered according to several alternative yardsticks.
Media should reflect the structure of society and geographical diversity.
Two basic variants of diversity as equal treatment:
- Literal equality: everyone receives the same level of provision and has the same chances
- Appropriate allocation of access and treatment. According to representation.
Inadequacy of formal structural provision in commercial media systems has been demonstrated by
comparative studies of media ownership. Media industries are converging and conglomerating.
Contrast between diversity supported by liberal pluralist view of freedom. Calls for media to be
effectively in hands of powerless, with equalization of chances to communicate.
Diversity at level of performance
Differentiation of media provision should correspond to the differences at source. The content
provided should match overall information and needs of society. Diversity of performance assessed
by output. Question of diversity assessed according to numeral dimensions: genre, taste, style etc.
Complete diversity is an unattainable ideal. There are inconsistencies in these normative
requirements. Degree of diversity is limited by channel capacity. The more that media are
proportionally reflective of society, the more likely it is that small minorities will be effectively
excluded from mass media. Catering for dominant groups limits the chance to offer wide choice.
Diversity of structure can compensate for a lack of diversity in dominant channels. Diversity relates to
naïve pluralism. Too much diversity can be dysfunctional for public arena, leads to social
fragmentation.
Main requirements of diversity norm for structure and performance:
- Media should reflect in their structure and content the various social, economic and cultural
realities of societies in which they operate, in proportional way
- Media should offer equal chances of access to the voices of various social and cultural
minorities that make up the society
- Media should serve as a platform for different interests in a society or community
- Media should offer relevant choices of content at one point in time and also variety over
time of a kind that corresponds to needs of their audiences
Truth and information quality
Claims for freedom of expression were related to value of truth of its senses. Broadly shared interest
in having access to knowledge that can be depended on from trusted sources, that matches the
reality of experience, and that is relevant in various applications. Benefits of information quality:
- Contributing to an informed society and skilled workforce
- Providing basis for democratic decision-making
- Guarding against propaganda and irrational appeals
- Warning against risks
- Meeting everyday needs of the public for information
, The objectivity concept
Form of media practice and also particular attitude to the task of information collection. Main
feature: adoption of a position of detachment towards the object of reporting. There is an effort to
avoid partisanship: not taking sides. Objectivity requires strict attachment to accuracy and other
truth criteria. Process of observing should not be contaminated by subjectivity.
This has become dominant ideal for role of professional journalist. Links with principle of freedom
(independence necessary for the truth) and equality (objectivity requires fair attitude to sources).
Objectivity is crucial in relationships that develop in the operating environments of media. Agencies
of state are able to speak to their chosen audience via media, without intervention and
compromising the channel. Objective: channels distance content from advertising matter they carry.
Media audience understand objective performance well enough increase public credence.
Because so much objectivity invoked in claims concerning bias. Warning against an uncritical
acceptance of this contemporary iteration of objectivity, as it is an overbearing disordered force.
A framework for objectivity research and theory
Component criteria of objectivity on page 217. Version has been set out in the context of research
into the degree of objectivity shown by Swedish broadcasting system: recognizes that objectivity has
to deal with values as well as with facts which have evaluative implications. Objectivity consists of:
- Factuality: form of reporting that deals in events and statements that can be checked.
Relevance, relates to process of selection and requires it takes place according to clear and
coherent principles of what is significant.
- Impartiality presupposes a neutral attitude and has to be achieved through a combination of
balance as between opposing interpretations.
Scheme has been given an extra element: informativeness (belongs to factuality) to fuller the
meaning of objectivity. Reference is to qualities of informational content which improves the chances
of getting information across to an audience.
Main information quality requirements:
- Mass media should provide comprehensive supply of relevant news and background
information about events in the society and the world around
- Information should be objective in the sense of being factual in form and true to reality, and
reliable in the sense of being checkable and separating fact from opinion
- Information should be balanced and fair, reporting alternative perspectives and
interpretations in a non-sensational way
Limits of objectivity
Difficulties embedded in these norms, because of uncertainty about what constitutes an adequate
supply of information and nature of objectivity. On a fundamental level: claims about objectivity are
misguided in that they assume that by excluding opinions from facts, reporting somehow will be
better. Relativism: shows how these positions are part of the same conceptual framework.
It has often been argued that following the rules of objectivity leads to new and less obvious forms of
bias. Advantages to well organized parties to matters of dispute, regardless of intrinsic values.
Debate about appropriate standards of information has given rise to a divide between those who
press for maximum information quality (full news standard) and those who argue in favor of more
realistic minimum standard (burglar alarm). Last would alert citizens only to essential matters.
Social order and solidarity
There is a rather consistent tendency on the part of those in authority to look to public
communication media for at least tacit support in the task of maintaining order. However, pluralistic
societies cannot be conceived as having one single dominant order which has to be maintained, and
mass media have mixed and divided responsibilities.
The concept of order is used in elastic way to apply symbolic (cultural) systems such as religion as
well as to forms of social order (community). Distinction is also cut across by distinction of
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