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Samenvatting Algemene Psychologie (P0L58C)
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Eline BunnikAlgemene psychologie
Inhoudsopgave
1. Wat is psychologie?................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1. Definitie.........................................................................................................................................................4
1.2. Omstandigheden die het beïnvloeden..........................................................................................................5
1.3. Korte voorgeschiedenis.................................................................................................................................5
1.3.1. Start wetenschappelijke studie duurde lang.........................................................................................5
1.3.2. Redenen waarom het zolang duurde :..................................................................................................5
1.3.3. Ontwikkelingen die de psychologie mogelijk maakten.........................................................................6
1.3.4. De groeiende macht van wetenschappen en het ontstaan van twee culturen....................................6
1.3.5. Twee culturen........................................................................................................................................6
1.3.6. De toepassing van de wetenschappelijke methode op het menselijke functioneren..........................7
1.4. Ontwikkelingen in de filosofie.......................................................................................................................7
1.4.1. Dualisme (Plato en de Kerk)..................................................................................................................7
1.4.2. Dualistisch interactionisme (Descartes)................................................................................................7
1.4.3. Empirisme..............................................................................................................................................7
1.4.4. Associationisme (Locke)........................................................................................................................8
1.4.5. Darwin en de evolutietheorie................................................................................................................8
1.4.6. The origin of species..............................................................................................................................8
1.4.7. De beginjaren van de psychologie.........................................................................................................8
EUROPA...........................................................................................................................................................8
1.4.8. Binet en de toegepaste psychologie.....................................................................................................8
1.4.9. Twee soorten onderzoek.......................................................................................................................8
1.4.10. Freud en het onbewuste.....................................................................................................................9
1.4.11. VERENIGDE STATEN.............................................................................................................................9
1.4.12. Behaviorisme.......................................................................................................................................9
1.4.13. Watson...............................................................................................................................................10
1.4.14. NU......................................................................................................................................................10
1.4.15. Cognitieve psychologie......................................................................................................................10
1.4.16. Moderne psychologie........................................................................................................................10
1.5. Onderzoeksmethoden in de psychologie....................................................................................................11
1.5.1. Beschrijvend onderzoek......................................................................................................................11
1.5.2. Correlatie onderzoek...........................................................................................................................12
1.5.3. Experimenteel onderzoek...................................................................................................................13
1.5.4. Enkele kanttekeningen bij psychologisch onderzoek..........................................................................13
1.6. Plaats van de psychologie in de samenleving.............................................................................................14
1.6.1. Psycholisering van de maatschappij....................................................................................................14
1.6.2. Beeld van psycholoog..........................................................................................................................14
1.6.3. Psychologen in het beroepenveld.......................................................................................................14
1.6.4. Diversiteit soorten = diversiteit aan onderzoek = diversiteit aan onderwijs......................................14
2. H2: Het zenuwstelsel............................................................................................................................... 14
Waarom het zenuwstelsel?................................................................................................................................14
2.1. Bouwstenen.................................................................................................................................................15
2.1.1. Delen van een neuron.........................................................................................................................15
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2.1.2. Communicatie tussen neuronen.........................................................................................................15
2.2. Onderdelen van het zenuwstelsel...............................................................................................................17
2.2.1. Centraal zenuwstelsel..........................................................................................................................17
2.2.2. Perifeer zenuwstelsel..........................................................................................................................18
2.3. De hersenen................................................................................................................................................19
2.3.1. De hersenstam.....................................................................................................................................19
2.3.2. De kleine hersenen..............................................................................................................................20
2.3.3. Thalamus, hypothalamus en limbisch systeem...................................................................................20
2.3.4. Grote hersenen....................................................................................................................................21
2.3.5. Sensorische, motorische associatie gebieden.....................................................................................22
2.4. Technieken om de hersenen te bestuderen................................................................................................22
2.4.1. Hersenlateralisatie...............................................................................................................................22
2.4.2. Hersenplasticiteit.................................................................................................................................23
3. H3: Waarneming en perceptie................................................................................................................. 23
3.1. Onderscheid tussen gewaarwording en waarneming................................................................................24
3.1.2. Licht en kleurconstantie......................................................................................................................25
3.1.3. Gemakkelijk zien van verandering.......................................................................................................26
3.2. Van retina naar hersenen: bottom-up processen.......................................................................................27
3.2.1. Bottom-up processen: primaire schets...............................................................................................27
3.2.2. Bottom-up processen: perceptuele organisatie..................................................................................28
3.2.3. Bottom-up processen: patroon en objectherkenning.........................................................................29
3.2.4. Bottom-up processen: patroon en objectherkenning.........................................................................29
3.3. Top – down processen.................................................................................................................................30
3.4. Waarneming van diepte en beweging........................................................................................................32
3 Waarneming van beweging............................................................................................................................34
3.5. Waarneming en actie..................................................................................................................................35
3.5.1. Spiegelneuronen:.................................................................................................................................35
3.6. Perceptuele capaciteiten van pasgeborenen..............................................................................................35
3.6.1. Wat is het belang van leren bij waarneming?.....................................................................................35
3.6.2. Hoe onderzoek met baby’s?................................................................................................................37
4. H4 Conditionering en leren...................................................................................................................... 37
4.1. Klassieke conditionering..............................................................................................................................38
4.1.1. De hond van Pavlov.............................................................................................................................38
4.1.2. Verwerving...........................................................................................................................................38
4.1.3. Extinctie...............................................................................................................................................39
4.1.4. Spontaan herstel..................................................................................................................................39
4.1.5. Stimilusgeneralisatie............................................................................................................................40
4.1.6. Stimilusdiscriminatie...........................................................................................................................40
4.1.7. Voorwaarden voor klassieke conditionering: de behavioristische interpretatie................................40
4.1.8. Het cognitieve alternatief....................................................................................................................41
4.1.9. Voorspellingen op basis van het cognitieve alternatief......................................................................41
4.1.10. Klassieke conditionering bij mensen.................................................................................................41
4.1.11. Systematische desentisatie...............................................................................................................41
4.2. Operante conditionering (instrumentele conditionering)...........................................................................42
4.2.1. Verschillen met klassieke conditionering............................................................................................42
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4.2.2. Geschiedenis van operante conditionering: Thorndike’s puzzlebox..................................................42
4.2.3. Bekrachtiging en straf..........................................................................................................................42
Straf en intensiteit.........................................................................................................................................43
Uitgestelde straf............................................................................................................................................43
Consistentie van de straf...............................................................................................................................43
Associatie met bekrachtiging vermijden.......................................................................................................43
Leren van ontspanningsgedrag en vermijdingsleren....................................................................................43
4.2.4. Vermijdingsleren en aangeleerde hulpeloosheid...............................................................................43
4.2.5. Voorwaarden effectieve straf..............................................................................................................44
4.3. Observerend leren.......................................................................................................................................44
4.3.1. Observerend (af)leren van angst.........................................................................................................45
4.3.2. Observerend leren van agressie..........................................................................................................45
4.3.3. Culturele verschillen............................................................................................................................45
5. H5: Het geheugen.................................................................................................................................... 45
5.1. Bevindingen van Ebbinghaus in de 19e eeuw..............................................................................................46
5.1.1. Procedure Ebbinghaus (1)...................................................................................................................46
5.1.2. Procedure Ebbinghaus (2)...................................................................................................................46
5.1.3. Procedure Ebbinghaus (3)...................................................................................................................47
5.2. Geheugenmodel van Atkinson en Shiffrin...................................................................................................47
5.2.1. Sensorisch geheugen...........................................................................................................................47
5.2.2. Echoïsch geheugen: Darwin,Turvey en Crowder (1972).....................................................................48
5.2.3. Korte termijngeheugen.......................................................................................................................48
5.2.4. Lange termijn geheugen......................................................................................................................49
5.3. Verdere ontwikkelingen in geheugentheorieen..........................................................................................50
5.3.1. Van KTG naar werkgeheugen (Baddeley en Hitch).............................................................................50
5.3.2. Realistischere kijk op informatieoverdracht van KTG naar LTG..........................................................52
5.4. Informatie oproepen uit het LTG.................................................................................................................53
5.4.1. Oproepingsaanwijzingen.....................................................................................................................53
5.4.2. De wonderbaarlijke kracht van toetsen en examens..........................................................................58
5.4.3. Geheugensteuntjes..............................................................................................................................58
5.5. Herinnering is reconstructie........................................................................................................................59
5.5.1. Ooggetuigenverklaringen....................................................................................................................61
5.5.2. Ooggetuigenverklaringen....................................................................................................................61
5.5.3. Meer over ooggetuigen.......................................................................................................................62
5.5.4. Reconstructie en verdrongen herinneringen......................................................................................62
5.6. Zeven zonden van het geheugen.................................................................................................................63
5.7. Amnesie en het implicitie geheugen...........................................................................................................63
5.7.1. Impliciet geheugen..............................................................................................................................64
5.7.2. vb spiegelbeeld van figuur tekenen (= zeer moeilijke taak)................................................................64
6. Hoofdstuk 7: Intelligentie........................................................................................................................ 64
6.1. Wat verstaan mensen onder intelligentie...................................................................................................64
6.2. Analytische intelligentie..............................................................................................................................65
6.2.1. Ontwikkeling van intelligentietests.....................................................................................................65
6.2.2. Verdere ontwikkelingen/moderne intelligentietest...........................................................................66
6.2.3. Kenmerken intelligentietests...............................................................................................................67
6.2.4. Betrouwbaarheid.................................................................................................................................69
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6.2.5. Validiteit...............................................................................................................................................69
6.2.6. De structuur van de analytische intelligentie......................................................................................70
6.2.7. Hoe stabiel zijn IQ-scores?..................................................................................................................70
6.2.8. Vermindert intelligentie met ouder worden?.....................................................................................70
6.2.9. Vermindert werkgeheugen bij ouderen?............................................................................................71
6.2.10. Evidentie voor erfelijke component..................................................................................................72
6.2.11. Evidentie voor milieu.........................................................................................................................72
6.2.12. Evidentie bij adoptiekinderen...........................................................................................................73
6.2.13. Schatting van nature-nurture bijdrage in huidige maatschappij......................................................74
6.2.14. Abnormale intelligentie....................................................................................................................75
6.3. Praktische intelligentie................................................................................................................................75
6.3.1. Theorie van Gardner............................................................................................................................75
6.3.2. Evidentie voor praktische intelligentie................................................................................................77
6.4. Sociale en emotionele intelligentie.............................................................................................................78
6.4.1. Test voor sociaal-emotionele intelligentie..........................................................................................78
6.4.2. Leren van sociale vaardigheden..........................................................................................................79
7. Hoofdstuk 11: Sociale psychologie........................................................................................................... 80
7.1. Sociale beinvloeding....................................................................................................................................80
7.1.1. The authoritation personality..............................................................................................................80
7.1.2. Conformisme (eerste onderzoekslijn).................................................................................................80
7.1.3. Gehoorzaamheid.................................................................................................................................81
7.1.4. Deindividuatie......................................................................................................................................84
7.1.5. Helpen..................................................................................................................................................85
7.2. Aantrekking en hechte relaties...................................................................................................................86
7.2.1. Lichamelijke aantrekking.....................................................................................................................86
7.2.2. Nabijheid..............................................................................................................................................87
7.2.3. Gelijkheid.............................................................................................................................................88
7.3. Vriendschap.................................................................................................................................................88
7.4. Liefde...........................................................................................................................................................89
7.5. Persoonsperceptie.......................................................................................................................................90
7.5.1. Sociale cognitie....................................................................................................................................90
7.5.2. persoonsperceptie: de eerste indruk..................................................................................................90
7.5.3. Persoonsperceptie: gedrag verklaren: attribiutie...............................................................................92
1. Wat is psychologie?
1.1. Definitie
Psychologie is de wetenschap waarbij het gedrag wordt bestudeerd en waarbij gedrag gebruikt
wordt om de interne processen te begrijpen.
Je bestudeert iets wat je kan zien om meer te weten over iets wat je niet kan zien. (interne
processen). Bijvoorbeeld sterrenkundigen maken op de grond van hoe de planeten draaien een
veronderstelling over hoe de wereld in elkaar zit.
!!! ‘observeerbaar’ is een relatief begrip: wat nu niet observeerbaar is, kan het later wel worden.
De psychologie boekt steeds vooruitgang:
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