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Summary RSC2601 Notes
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This document is a summary of the Study Guide of RSC2601, which will help you study easier for this module and easily pass with destinction.
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Study Unit 1• Inquiry is the process whereby we gain knowledge by observing how things are and
using our minds to think logically about what we observed (using our reason, in
other words).
• Science is a process of inquiry — a way of learning and knowing things about the
world around us using logic, observation and theory. Scientific thinking makes sense
(is logical), has a reference (observed evidence) and gives an explanation (theory) for
what we observe.
• Research is composed of two syllables, re and search. Dictionaries define “re” as a
prefix meaning again and “search” as a verb meaning to look for something.
Together, the syllables form a noun which means “to look at again”. In our case, we
are taking “another look at” social events. In other words, making a careful and
planned study of them.
Sources of General Knowledge
Tradition:
• Tradition may be harmful to human inquiry. If you accept something as true simply
because others have always believed it, you may be led into falsehood.
• To think traditionally means that we do not find out how the knowledge was
obtained in the first place. In other words, the source of learning is not questioned.
Authority:
• When we accept something as being true because of the status of the person who
discovered this truth, we are relying on authority as our source of knowledge.
• But the problem with relying on authority is that we can overestimate the expertise
of persons in authority: in other words, experts can be wrong.
Mysticism and religion:
• Religion often offers a type of knowledge based upon the authority of sacred texts or
some other supernatural source.
• While religion can be useful in providing our lives with meaning and in understanding
our place in the cosmos, it is not a reliable guide to knowledge about the actual state
of the world.
Common sense:
• This form of reasoning relates to what people know intuitively (i.e. through instinct),
such as when to trust someone.
• When we know something intuitively, we recognise a truth or falsehood without
analysing why we recognise it.
, • Common sense is valuable in everyday life since it helps people to reach decisions
and solve daily problems. It also helps communication between people in general,
because it covers topics that everyone knows about.
• Common sense does not systematically consider how ideas are related to each
other. Nor does it collect information systematically in reaching conclusions. Finally,
common sense often originates in tradition.
Media myths:
• Most people learn about the world and develop their concept of social reality
according to what they see, hear and read in the media.
• Writers who adapt real life for television shows and films scripts distort reality, often
relying on tradition, authority or common sense.
• Writers for newspapers and magazines have deadlines which limit their information
and they cannot be specialists in every topic they write about.
• Mistakes may be made from ignorance.
• Public thinking can be changed by selective emphasis, and this, in turn, can lead
people into error.
Errors in human inquiry and howscientists try to avoid them
Inaccurate observation:
• We need to know the what before we can explain the why.
• We may mistakenly think we have seen something happen that did not, in fact,
happen. An example of this is, of course, a road accident, where the witnesses all
have different accounts of what happened.
Overgeneralisation:
• Overgeneralisation means that we arrive at a general conclusion about a particular
thing when we have only observed a few cases of that thing.
• The “halo effect” is when we look at one very good aspect of something and then
overgeneralise. For example, we respect someone or an institution, and then
overgeneralise by saying that this person or institution is “wonderful” in all respects,
giving them a proverbial halo.
• Replication means repeating a study, checking to see if the same results are
obtained. If the same results are obtained, you can feel more confident about
generalising your findings. If, however, replication gives different results, it has
helped prevent you from overgeneralising and coming to incorrect conclusions.
, Selective observation:
• Overgeneralisation may lead to selective observation. Once the decision is made that
events are following a particular pattern, and you think you know why, you will tend
to pay attention mainly to future situations that correspond with that pattern. You
will also tend to overlook the situations that conflict with the pattern.
Ego involvement in understanding:
• We link our understanding of how things are to the image of ourselves that we
present to others. Because of this link, any disproof of this understanding tends to
make us look gullible, stupid and generally not okay. So we commit ourselves more
firmly to our understanding of how things are and in the process create a large
barrier to further inquiry.
The premature closure of inquiry:
• We ask questions for a short while, obtain some answers and stop our inquiry too
soon. As a result, our attempt to understand something stops before our
understanding is complete.
Norms of the scientific community
• Norms are rules of conduct in particular situations that are enforced by positive and
negative sanctions.
• People are rewarded if they act according to the norm (positive sanctions) and
punished if they violate the norm (negative sanctions).
• There are other types of norms, such as:
➢ Universalism: Irrespective of who conducts the research and regardless of
where it was conducted, the research is to be judged only on the basis of
scientific merit.
➢ Organised scepticism: Scientists should not accept new ideas or evidence in a
carefree, uncritical manner. Instead, all evidence should be challenged and
questioned.
➢ Disinterestedness: Scientists must be neutral, impartial, receptive and open
to unexpected observations or new ideas. Scientists should not be rigidly
wedded to a particular idea or point of view.
➢ Communalism: Scientific knowledge must be shared with others; it belongs
to everyone.
➢ Honesty: This is a general cultural norm, but it is especially strong in scientific
research. Scientists demand honesty in all research; dishonesty or cheating in
scientific research is a major taboo.
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