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Summary Psychology 223 notes
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Childhood development. Chapters 1 to 3 for semester test
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Psychology 223Chapter 1
Developmental stages
e Development is a continuous process.
e Some boundaries are more demarcated.
e = Individual and cultural differences must be thought of.
Prenatal stage
OW RWN Pe
Neonatal stage (first 2-4 weeks of life) and infancy (first 2 years)
Early childhood (2-6 years)
Middle childhood (6-12 years or until puberty)
Adolescence (puberty-adulthood)
Developmental Domains
e Physical Domain refers to changes in child’s body including brain development. This
can also refer to motor development.
e Cognitive development includes perception, language, decision making and
intelligence. How a child understands it world.
e Personality development refers to the psychological, social, moral and physical
characteristics. It is unique to each person.
e Social development refers to a person’s interactions with others along with the
influence of society and significant others on the individual person.
Developmental issues
Nature v. Nurture:
The focus of the debate has moved to see how each of these factors contribute to
behaviour, situations and individuals.
Continuity v. Discontinuity:
Whether it be continuous (gradual) or discontinuous (abrupt) both points are correct
depending on behaviour of the individual. One main question that has surfaced is “Do early
characteristics of the child continue into adulthood? ”
Passive v. Active involvement:
Do children play a role in their development? The most agreeable answer would be that
environmental influences cannot be denied but children also play a role in their
,development. The way children interpret, and process experiences can influence
development. This is still being explored.
Universality or Cultural context:
Do all children follow universal developmental pathways or are there differences? This is the
question that got people thinking as previously development in children was mostly tested
on white, middle-class, western children. It has now been shown that cultural context is
very important in development as children acquire socio, spiritual and practical skills that
help them within their own society. Developmental pathways differ between cultures.
Influence of parental practices.
Theories of development
A theory is an organised set of ideas designed to explain and make predictions about
development and stimulate new research.
Biological Perspective
Behaviour is determined by biological factors. This focuses on hereditary factors such as
genetics, nervous system, endocrine system and brain. This perspective has gained much
support due to the evidence. This then expands to 3 other theories:
Maturational theory: Child development reflects a specific and prearranged plan within the
child’s body. It is the natural unfolding of a predetermined biological plan. This theory states
that environmental factors are not important and for this reason, the theory has been
discarded.
Ethological theory: Views development from an evolutionary perspective and says certain
behaviours are adaptive. We inherit behaviours that assist in survival. Ethological theorists
say that animals are biologically programmed so that some learning occurs at certain stages,
they are also referring to humans when saying this.
Evolutionary theory: This applies Darwin’s theory of evolution and principle of natural
selection to human behaviour. Much of human behaviour results from successful adaptation
to the environment. These adaptive behaviours are then inherited over successive
generations. Theorists emphasise the adaptive value of children’s behaviour at different
points in development.
Psychodynamic perspective
, Explores influence of unconscious psychological motives, drives and urges on behavior.
Oldest psychological theory on child development.
Freuds psychosexual theory: Freud was convinced that early life experiences establish
patterns that endure throughout life. Freud said the following about psychoanalysis:
“Development is largely determined by how well people resolve unconscious conflicts they
face at different ages.” Personality can be divided into the id, ego and superego.
Id: Primitive instincts and drives. Present at birth.
Ego: Practical rational component. First year of life. Resolves conflict between id and real
world.
Superego: Moral agent of personality. Emerges in preschool years.
Table 1.1 Freud’s psychosexual developmental stages
PSYCHOSEKUAL | APPROXIMATE DESCRIPTION
STAGE AGE
Oral Birth - 1 year Sexual energy is centred on the mouth. Babies derive oral
gratification from sucking, tc. if oral needs are not met
appropriately, the individual may develop habits as thumb
sucking and fingernail biting in childhood and overeating
and smoking later in life.
Anal 1-3 years Sexual energy centres on the anal area, especially regarding
the contro! of elimination functions. Toilet training
becomes @ major issue between parent and child. if parents
insist that children be trained before they are ready, or
make too few demands, conflicts about anal control may
appear in the form of extreme orderliness and cleanliness
Or messiness and disorder.
Phalilic 3-6 years Sexual impulses transfer to the genitals and the child finds
pleasure in genital stimulation. Freud’s Oedipus conflict in
boys and the Electra conflict in girls arise and young
children feel a sexual desire for the other-sex parent.
Because of the anxiety this causes, they identify with the
same-sex parent's characteristics and values. As a result,
the superego is formed. The relations between the id, ego
and superego established at this time determine the
individual's basic personality.
Latency 6-11 years Sexual instincts subside and the superego develops further.
The child acquires new social values from interacting with
other adults and with same sex peers. Energy & channelled
in school and social activities.
Genital Adolescence Puberty causes the sexual impulses to reappear.
Adolescents have to learn to express these urges in socially
acceptable ways. if development has been successful
during earlier stages, it leads to mature semuality, marriage
and the birth and rearing of children.
Child moves in sequence through these stages. Children must overcome something at each
stage, or they could become fixated at the stage they cannot resolve. Most theories were
developed from Freud’s patients and not children directly. This theory has also not been
proven therefore this theory receives many critiques.
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