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Samenvatting Vergelijkende Biologie 15/20! (EO5C2A)
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Gestructureerde en volledige samenvatting van vergelijkende biologie
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Vergelijkende biologieInhoudsopgave
Hoofdstuk 1: de cel................................................................................................................................ 10
1.1 Celtheorie .................................................................................................................................... 10
1.2 prokaryote cellen......................................................................................................................... 10
1.3 eukaryote cellen .......................................................................................................................... 10
1.4 celkern ......................................................................................................................................... 10
1.5 ribosomen ................................................................................................................................... 11
1.6 endomembranair systeem .......................................................................................................... 11
1.7 endoplasmatisch reticulum ......................................................................................................... 11
1.8 Golgi apparaat ............................................................................................................................. 11
1.9 lysosomen.................................................................................................................................... 11
1.10 microbodies ............................................................................................................................... 12
1.11 vacuolen .................................................................................................................................... 12
1.12 mitochondria ............................................................................................................................. 12
1.13 chloroplasten ............................................................................................................................. 12
1.14 mitochondria & chloroplasten .................................................................................................. 12
1.15 cytoskelet .................................................................................................................................. 13
1.16 extracellulaire structuren .......................................................................................................... 13
1.17 celbeweging............................................................................................................................... 13
Hoofdstuk 2: celdeling ........................................................................................................................... 13
2.1 celdeling bij bacteria ................................................................................................................... 13
2.2 eukaryote chromosomen ............................................................................................................ 13
2.3 eukaryote celcyclus ..................................................................................................................... 14
2.4 interfase....................................................................................................................................... 14
2.5 mitose .......................................................................................................................................... 14
2.6 profase......................................................................................................................................... 14
2.7 prometafase ................................................................................................................................ 14
2.8 metafase ...................................................................................................................................... 14
2.9 anafase ........................................................................................................................................ 15
2.10 telofase ...................................................................................................................................... 15
2.11 cytokinese.................................................................................................................................. 15
2.12 meiose ....................................................................................................................................... 15
2.13 meisose I .................................................................................................................................... 15
2.14 meiose II .................................................................................................................................... 16
1
, 2.15 meiose vs mitose ....................................................................................................................... 16
Hoofdstuk 3: de levensboom ................................................................................................................ 16
3.1 fundamentele eigenschappen van leven .................................................................................... 16
3.2 classificatie van organismen ........................................................................................................ 16
3.3 de hiërarchie van Linnaeus .......................................................................................................... 17
3.4 limitaties van de hiërarchie ......................................................................................................... 17
3.5 organismen groeperen ................................................................................................................ 17
Hoofdstuk 4: virussen ............................................................................................................................ 17
4.1 virussen........................................................................................................................................ 17
4.2 virale vormen............................................................................................................................... 18
4.3 virussen variëren in grootte en vorm .......................................................................................... 18
4.4 virale genomen ............................................................................................................................ 18
4.5 Bacteriofagen – bacteriële virussen ............................................................................................ 18
4.6 ziekten veroorzaakt door virussen .............................................................................................. 18
4.7 influenza virus ............................................................................................................................. 19
4.8 Human Immunodeficiency Virus ................................................................................................. 19
4.9 behandelingen tegen HIV ............................................................................................................ 19
4.10 virussen en kanker..................................................................................................................... 20
4.11 opkomende virussen ................................................................................................................. 20
4.12 prions ......................................................................................................................................... 20
4.13 viroids ........................................................................................................................................ 20
Hoofdstuk 5: Prokaryoten ..................................................................................................................... 20
5.1 prokaryoten ................................................................................................................................. 20
5.2 fundamentele verschillen tussen prokaryoten en eukaryoten ................................................... 20
5.3 prokaryota: verschillen tussen Bacteria en Archaea ................................................................... 21
5.4 eerste classificatie van prokaryoten op basis van eigenschappen .............................................. 21
5.5 moleculaire classificatie .............................................................................................................. 21
5.6 prokaryoten celstructuur ............................................................................................................ 21
5.7 de bacteriële celwand ................................................................................................................. 22
5.8 externe lagen, structuren ............................................................................................................ 22
5.9 interne structuren ....................................................................................................................... 22
5.10 genetica bij prokaryoten ........................................................................................................... 22
5.11 transformatie............................................................................................................................. 22
5.12 transductie................................................................................................................................. 23
5.13 conjugatie .................................................................................................................................. 23
5.14 mutaties..................................................................................................................................... 23
5.15 metabolisme van prokaryoten .................................................................................................. 23
5.16 bacteriële ziektes bij de mens ................................................................................................... 24
2
, 5.17 voordelige prokaryoten ............................................................................................................. 24
Hoofdstuk 6 : eukaryota & protista ....................................................................................................... 24
6.1 Eukaryota – 6 supergroepen ....................................................................................................... 25
6.2 protista ........................................................................................................................................ 25
6.3 protista – algemene kenmerken ................................................................................................. 25
6.4 excavata ...................................................................................................................................... 26
6.4.1 diplomonada......................................................................................................................... 26
6.4.2 parabasalia ........................................................................................................................... 26
6.4.3 euglenozoa ........................................................................................................................... 26
6.5 chromalveolata – alvelolaten ...................................................................................................... 26
6.5.1 dinoflagellaten ...................................................................................................................... 26
6.5.2 apicomplexa ......................................................................................................................... 27
6.5.3 cilata ..................................................................................................................................... 27
6.6 Amoeba – Rhizopoda................................................................................................................... 28
6.7 chromalveolata – stramenopila................................................................................................... 28
Hoofdstuk 7: diversiteit en evolutie van bouwplan .............................................................................. 28
7.1 definitie van een dier................................................................................................................... 28
7.2 organismen groeperen ................................................................................................................ 28
7.3 definitie van een dier................................................................................................................... 28
7.4 belangrijkste kenmerken – animalia ........................................................................................... 29
7.5 bijkomende kenmerken .............................................................................................................. 29
7.6 gemeenschappelijke kenmerken................................................................................................. 29
7.7 variatie in lichaamsbouwplan...................................................................................................... 29
7.8 variaties in lichaamsbouw ........................................................................................................... 30
7.8.1 ontwikkeling van weefsels.................................................................................................... 30
7.8.2 evolutie van symmetrie ........................................................................................................ 30
7.8.3 ontwikkeling van een lichaamsholte .................................................................................... 30
7.8.4 evolutie van verschillende patronen van ontwikkeling........................................................ 31
7.8.5 evolutie van segmentatie ..................................................................................................... 31
7.9 traditionele classificatie van dieren............................................................................................. 32
7.10 actuele classificatie van dieren.................................................................................................. 32
7.11 De hiërarchie van Linnaeus ....................................................................................................... 32
7.12 Phylum Porifera (sponzen) ........................................................................................................ 32
7.12.1 lichaamsopbouw ................................................................................................................ 32
7.12.2 lichaamsfuncties ................................................................................................................. 33
7.12.3 toepassingen ...................................................................................................................... 33
7.13 Phylum cnidaria (neteldieren) ................................................................................................... 33
7.13.1 lichaamsopbouw ................................................................................................................ 33
3
, 7.13.2 lichaamsfuncties ................................................................................................................. 34
7.13.3 classificatie ......................................................................................................................... 34
7.13.4 toepassingen ...................................................................................................................... 34
7.14 phylum ctenophora (ribkwallen) ............................................................................................... 34
Hoofdstuk 8: protostomen .................................................................................................................... 35
8.1 phylum platyhelminthes (platwormen) ...................................................................................... 35
8.1.1 lichaamsopbouw .................................................................................................................. 35
8.1.2 lichaamsfuncties ................................................................................................................... 35
8.1.3 classificatie ........................................................................................................................... 35
8.1.4 Nut/nadeel ........................................................................................................................... 36
8.2 phylum annelida (ringwormen - gelede wormen) ...................................................................... 36
8.2.1 lichaamsopbouw .................................................................................................................. 36
8.2.2 lichaamsfuncties ....................................................................................................................... 36
8.2.3 classificatie ............................................................................................................................... 37
8.2.4 nut/nadeel ................................................................................................................................ 37
8.3 phylum nematoda ....................................................................................................................... 37
8.3.1 lichaamsopbouw ...................................................................................................................... 37
8.3.2 lichaamsfuncties ................................................................................................................... 37
8.3.3 nut/nadeel ............................................................................................................................ 38
8.4 phylum arthropoda (geleedpotigen) ........................................................................................... 38
8.4.1 lichaamsopbouw .................................................................................................................. 38
8.4.2 lichaamsfuncties ................................................................................................................... 38
8.4.3 classificatie ........................................................................................................................... 39
8.4.3 Nut/nadeel ........................................................................................................................... 39
Hoofdstuk 9: Deuterostomen................................................................................................................ 40
9.1 Phylum echinodermata (stekelhuidigen) .................................................................................... 40
9.1.1 lichaamsopbouw .................................................................................................................. 40
9.1.2 lichaamsfuncties ................................................................................................................... 40
9.1.3 classificatie ........................................................................................................................... 40
9.1.3 toepassingen ........................................................................................................................ 41
9.2 phylum chordata ......................................................................................................................... 41
9.2.1 Kenmerken Chordata ........................................................................................................... 41
9.3 classificatie vertebrata ............................................................................................................ 42
9.4 eerste vissen ................................................................................................................................ 42
9.4.1 De evolutie van kaken en gepaarde aanhangsels ................................................................ 42
9.5 echte vissen ................................................................................................................................. 43
9.6 Chondrichthyes of kraakbeenvissen............................................................................................ 43
9.6.1 typische kenmerken ............................................................................................................. 43
4
, 9.6.2 levenswijze ........................................................................................................................... 43
9.6.3 classificatie ........................................................................................................................... 43
9.7 beenvissen (teleostei) ................................................................................................................. 43
9.7.1 typische kenmerken ............................................................................................................. 43
9.7.2 levenswijze ........................................................................................................................... 44
9.7.3 Classificatie ........................................................................................................................... 44
9.8 amphibia ...................................................................................................................................... 44
9.8.1 typische kenmerken ............................................................................................................. 44
9.8.2 levenswijze ........................................................................................................................... 45
9.8.3 classificatie ........................................................................................................................... 45
9.9 Reptila...................................................................................................................................... 45
9.9.1 typische kenmerken ............................................................................................................. 45
9.9.2 levenswijze ........................................................................................................................... 46
9.9.3 evolutie & classificatie .......................................................................................................... 46
9.9.4 classificatie ........................................................................................................................... 46
9.10 aves............................................................................................................................................ 47
9.10.1 typische kenmerken ........................................................................................................... 47
9.10.2 levenswijze ......................................................................................................................... 47
9.10.3 classificatie ......................................................................................................................... 47
9.11 mammalia .................................................................................................................................. 47
9.11.1 typische kenmerken ........................................................................................................... 48
9.11.2 levenswijze ......................................................................................................................... 48
9.11.3 classificatie ......................................................................................................................... 48
9.11.4 evolutie van primaten ........................................................................................................ 49
9.11.5 samenvatting ...................................................................................................................... 49
Hoofdstuk 10: Opbouw en regulatie van het lichaam .......................................................................... 50
10.1 Organisatie van het vertebratenlichaam................................................................................... 50
10.2 Orgaansystemen........................................................................................................................ 50
10.3 organisatie van het vertebratenlichaam ................................................................................... 50
10.4 Steunweefsels............................................................................................................................ 50
10.5 Gewoon bindweefsel................................................................................................................. 50
10.6 speciaal bindweefsel ................................................................................................................. 51
10.7 Spierweefsel .............................................................................................................................. 51
10.8 Zenuwweefsel............................................................................................................................ 51
10.9 orgaansystemen ........................................................................................................................ 52
10.10 Homeostase ............................................................................................................................. 52
Hoofdstuk 11: Musculo-skeletaal systeem ........................................................................................... 53
11.1 Types skelet ............................................................................................................................... 53
5
, 11.2 Hydroskelet ............................................................................................................................... 53
11.3 Exoskelet.................................................................................................................................... 53
11.4 Endoskelet ................................................................................................................................. 54
11.5 Been ........................................................................................................................................... 54
11.6 Beenstructuur ............................................................................................................................ 54
11.7 Been ‘hermodelering’ ................................................................................................................ 55
11.8 Gewrichten ................................................................................................................................ 55
11.9 beweging skeletspieren ............................................................................................................. 55
11.10 Structuur skeletspier ............................................................................................................... 55
11.11 contractie skeletspier .............................................................................................................. 55
11.12 Types spiervezels ..................................................................................................................... 56
Hoofdstuk 12: Het spijsverteringsstelsel ............................................................................................... 57
12.1 Terminologie.............................................................................................................................. 57
12.2 Variaties in spijsverteringsstelsels ............................................................................................. 57
12.3 Het menselijk spijsverteringsstelsel: overzicht ......................................................................... 58
12.4 Een beetje histologie: wand spijsverteringskanaal ................................................................... 58
12.5 Mond & keelholte...................................................................................................................... 58
12.5.1 functie................................................................................................................................. 58
12.5.2 Gebit ................................................................................................................................... 58
12.5.3 Klieren................................................................................................................................. 58
12.5.4 Slikreflex ............................................................................................................................. 58
12.6 Slokdarm: functie ...................................................................................................................... 59
12.7 Maag .......................................................................................................................................... 59
12.7.1 opbouw............................................................................................................................... 59
12.7.2 opbouw – klieren ................................................................................................................ 59
12.7.3 Functie ................................................................................................................................ 59
12.8 Dunne darm: opbouw ............................................................................................................... 59
12.9 Geassocieerde organen: de pancreas ....................................................................................... 59
12.10 Geassocieerde organen: de pancreas – exocrien & endocrien ............................................... 60
12.11 Geassocieerde organen: galblaas ............................................................................................ 60
12.12 Dunne darm ............................................................................................................................. 60
12.12.1 Opbouw + functie ............................................................................................................. 60
12.12.2 Absorptieproces ............................................................................................................... 60
12.13 Dikke darm .............................................................................................................................. 60
12.13.1 opbouw............................................................................................................................. 60
12.13.2 Functie .............................................................................................................................. 61
12.14 aanpassingen aan spijsverteringsstelsel.................................................................................. 61
12.15 Regulatie spijsverteringsstelsel ............................................................................................... 61
6
, 12.16 Regulatie bloedsuikerspiegel................................................................................................... 61
12.17 Regulatie voedselopname ....................................................................................................... 62
12.18 Neuro-endocriene regulatie .................................................................................................... 62
12.19 samenvattende tabel .............................................................................................................. 62
Hoofdstuk 13: Het ademhalingsstelsel .................................................................................................. 62
13.1 Ademhaling................................................................................................................................ 62
13.2 principes gasuitwisseling ........................................................................................................... 63
13.3 Kieuwademhaling ...................................................................................................................... 63
13.4 Huidademhaling ........................................................................................................................ 63
13.5 Ademhaling via Trancheen ........................................................................................................ 64
13.6 Ademhaling via longen .............................................................................................................. 64
13.7 Ventilatie bij zoogdieren ........................................................................................................... 65
13.8 Gasuitwisseling .......................................................................................................................... 66
13.9 Longstructuur en ventilatie ....................................................................................................... 66
13.10 Controle van longventilatie ..................................................................................................... 66
13.11 Transport van gassen .............................................................................................................. 67
13.11.1 Transport van O2............................................................................................................... 67
13.11.2 Transport van CO2 ................................................................................................................ 68
13.12 Respiratorische aandoeningen bij mens ................................................................................. 68
Hoofdstuk 14: Het zenuwstelsel............................................................................................................ 69
14.1 Organisatie van het zenuwstelsel.............................................................................................. 69
14.2 Mechanisme van de zenuwimpuls ............................................................................................ 70
14.3 Signaaltransductie in synapsen ................................................................................................. 72
14.4 Het centraal zenuwstelsel ......................................................................................................... 74
14.5 Basisplan van de vertebraten hersenen .................................................................................... 75
14.5 Stijgende dominatie van de voorhersenen ............................................................................... 75
14.6 Het cerebrum bij de mens ......................................................................................................... 75
14.7 Complexe functies van de hersenen ......................................................................................... 76
14.8 Het ruggenmerg bij de mens ..................................................................................................... 76
14.9 Het perifeer zenuwstelsel ......................................................................................................... 77
14.10 Het autonoom zenuwstelsel.................................................................................................... 77
Hoofdstuk 15: sensorische systemen (zintuigen).................................................................................. 78
15.1 overzicht van sensorische receptoren....................................................................................... 78
15.2 Mechanoreceptoren: tast en druk ............................................................................................ 79
15.3 Zijlijnsysteem bij vissen – detectie van lage frequentie vibratie inschatten afstand tot objecten
........................................................................................................................................................... 79
15.4 Het oor bij Land Vertebraten .................................................................................................... 80
15.5 Navigatie op basis van geluid .................................................................................................... 80
15.6 Detectie van de positie en beweging van het lichaam – evenwicht ......................................... 80
7
, 15.7 Zicht ........................................................................................................................................... 81
15.8 Structuur van vertebraten oog .................................................................................................. 81
15.9 Visuele processing ..................................................................................................................... 82
Hoofdstuk 16: Het endocrien systeem .................................................................................................. 82
16.1 Signalisatie via chemische boodschappers ............................................................................... 82
16.2 Endocriene klieren..................................................................................................................... 83
16.3 Chemische klassen van hormonen ............................................................................................ 83
16.4 Cellulair werkingsmechanisme .................................................................................................. 83
16.5 Lipofiele hormonen ................................................................................................................... 84
16.6 Hydrofiele hormonen ................................................................................................................ 84
16.7 Paracriene regulatoren.............................................................................................................. 85
16.8 Hypofyse – Hypothalamus......................................................................................................... 85
16.9 Hypothalamo-hypofysair portaalsysteem ................................................................................. 87
16.8 Hypofyse – hypothalamus ......................................................................................................... 87
16.10 Perifere Endocriene klieren ..................................................................................................... 88
16.10.1 De schildklier .................................................................................................................... 88
16.10.2 De parathyroidea (bijschildklieren) .................................................................................. 88
16.10.3 De bijnieren ...................................................................................................................... 88
16.10.4 De pancreas ...................................................................................................................... 89
16.10.5 De gonaden ...................................................................................................................... 89
16.10.6 De pijnappelklier of epifyse .............................................................................................. 90
16.10.7 Andere hormonen ............................................................................................................ 90
Hoofdstuk 17: Circulatie ........................................................................................................................ 90
17.1 Samenstelling bloed .................................................................................................................. 90
17.2 Klontervorming.......................................................................................................................... 91
17.3 Anticoagulatie-systeem ............................................................................................................. 91
17.4 Overzicht ................................................................................................................................... 91
17.5 Circulatiesysteem ...................................................................................................................... 92
17.6 De hartcyclus: anatomie ............................................................................................................ 93
17.7 De hartcyclus ............................................................................................................................. 93
17.8 Bloedvaten................................................................................................................................. 93
17.9 Het lymfatisch systeem ............................................................................................................. 94
17.10 Bloeddruk ................................................................................................................................ 94
17.11 Regulatie bloeddruk – neuraal ................................................................................................ 94
17.12 Regulatie bloeddruk – hormonen ........................................................................................... 94
17.13 Cardiovasculaire aandoeningen .............................................................................................. 95
Hoofdstuk 18: osmoregulatie en het excretiestelsel ............................................................................ 95
18.1 Osmolariteit en osmotische balans ........................................................................................... 95
8
, 18.2 Stikstofhoudende afvalstoffen .................................................................................................. 96
18.3 Osmoregulatie bij invertebraten ............................................................................................... 96
18.4 Evolutie van de nier bij vertebraten .......................................................................................... 97
18.5 De nier bij zoogdieren ............................................................................................................... 98
18.6 Reabsorptie en secretie ............................................................................................................. 99
18.7 Excretie ...................................................................................................................................... 99
18.8 Transport in het nefron ............................................................................................................. 99
18.9 Hormonale controle van de osmoregulatie ............................................................................ 100
Hoofdstuk 19: Het voortplantingsstelsel ............................................................................................. 101
19.1 Seksuele vs. Aseksuele reproductie ........................................................................................ 101
19.2 Nieuwe reproductie-strategieën ............................................................................................. 102
19.3 Geslachtsdeterminatie ............................................................................................................ 102
19.4 vertebraten – bevruchting & ontwikkeling ............................................................................. 102
19.5 Vertebraten: bevruchting ........................................................................................................ 102
19.6 Reproductie in zoogdieren ...................................................................................................... 103
19.7 Mannelijk reproductief systeem ............................................................................................. 103
19.8 Spermatogenese...................................................................................................................... 103
19.9 Sperma-structuur .................................................................................................................... 104
19.10 Accessorische mannelijke geslachtsorganen ........................................................................ 104
19.11 Penisstructuur en -functie ..................................................................................................... 104
19.12 Mannelijke geslachtshormonen ............................................................................................ 104
19.13 Vrouwelijk voortplantingsstelsel ........................................................................................... 104
19.14 Oögenese............................................................................................................................... 105
19.15 De menstruele cyclus ............................................................................................................ 105
Hoofdstuk 20: Dierlijke ontwikkeling .................................................................................................. 106
20.1 Ontwikkeling bij seksuele reproductie .................................................................................... 106
20.2 Bevruchting ............................................................................................................................. 106
20.3 Klievingsdelingen ..................................................................................................................... 108
20.4 Gastrulatie ............................................................................................................................... 109
20.5 Organogenese ......................................................................................................................... 111
9
, Hoofdstuk 1: de cel
1.1 Celtheorie
Cellen zijn ontdekt in 1665 en de eerste studies op cellen zijn uitgevoerd in 1838 en 1839.
Celtheorie
1. Alle organismen zijn samengesteld uit cellen
2. Cellen zijn de kleinst levende dingen
3. Cellen ontstaan alleen uit reeds bestaande cellen
➢ Alle vandaag levende cellen vormen een continue lijn van afstammelingen vanuit de
eerst levende cellen
Celgrootte is gelimiteerd
➢ Als celgrootte toeneemt, duurt het langer voor inkomend of uitkomend materiaal om te
diffunderen van celmembraan tot binnen in de cel.
Cellen worden meestal alleen waargenomen met microscopen na specifieke kleuring
● Lichtmicroscopen onderscheiden structuren die 200nm van elkaar liggen
● Elektronenmicroscopen onderscheiden structuren die 0.2nm van elkaar liggen
Alle cellen hebben bepaalde structuren gemeen
● Genetisch materiaal – in kern of nucleus (nucleoid)
● Cytoplasma – een semivloeibare matrix (cytosol & organellen)
● Plasmamembraan – een dubbele fosfolipide laag (eiwitten + cholesterol)
1.2 prokaryote cellen
- Geen echte kern, genetisch materiaal aanwezig in nucleoid of kernzone
- Cytoplasma
- Plasmamembraan en celwand
- Ribosomen
- Geen membraan-omgeven organellen
- Eenvoudig cytoskelet
- Roterend flagellum (beweging)
Twee typen van prokaryoten
- Archaea – geen peptidoglycaan in celwand
- Bacteria – celwand bestaat uit peptidoglycaan (grampositief of gramnegatief)
Studie van prokaryoten = microbiologie
1.3 eukaryote cellen
- membraan omgeven nucleus
- Complexer dan prokaryote cellen
- Cellulaire functies gecompartimentalizeerd in organellen en het endomembranair systeem
- Cytoskelet voor steun en behoud van celstructuur
- Dierlijke cellen en plantencellen
Studie van eukaryote cellen = celbiologie
1.4 celkern
- Bevat genetisch materiaal in de vorm van vele lineaire chromosomen (DNA + eiwitten =
chromatine)
- Omgeven door een nucleaire enveloppe bestaande uit 2 dubbele fosfolipide lagen
10
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