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Summary Criminology 310 Exam Notes (Section B, Unit 9)
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PSYCHOCRIMINOLOGY.CRIMINOLOGY 310 PART B.
STUDY UNIT 9.
CHAPTER 15: VIOLENT ECONOMIC CRIME AND CRIMES
OF INTIMIDATION.
After having studied this study unit, you should be able to critically discuss crimes of
intimidation such as stalking and hostage taking.
INTRODUCTION:
The kidnapping of individuals and holding them hostage is not a new
phenomenon. The increase in hostage taking over the past few decades has,
however, created the impression that the phenomenon is of recent origin. In
order to get a clear picture of the problem, it is necessary to pay attention to the
historical background of this phenomenon as well as the definitions of the
concepts kidnapping and hostage taking.
Define the concept “stalking” and explain why it could be considered a
criminal activity.
Many young adults report that they or someone they know well has experienced what they think of as
stalking—such as unwelcome, persistent phone calls, text messages, or being followed on the street or
into classrooms, stores, bars, and nightclubs.
Stalking is defined as “a course of conduct directed at a specific person that involves
repeated physical or visual proximity, non-consensual communication, or verbal, written, or
implied threats sufficient to cause fear in a reasonable person”
Legal definitions of stalking vary widely. While most states define it as the wilful, malicious,
and repeated following and harassing of another person, some include such activities as
lying-in-wait, surveillance, non-consensual communication, telephone harassment, and
vandalism. Some states specify that at least two stalking events must occur before the
conduct can be considered illegal.
Persons between the age of 18 and 24 experience the highest rates of stalking victimization, and the
risk of victimization decreases with age. Individuals who are divorced or separated are also at high
risk of stalking victimization by their former partners. (JUST READ THIS, DON’T STUDY)
- In a recent study, Sheridan et al. (2015) compared various age groups of stalkers via detailed
information obtained from their victims. Stalkers were divided into three groups—16 and
under, 17 to 59, and 60 and over. Interestingly, there were few significant differences among
the stalkers. For example, the three groups were equally violent. Comparisons among the
victims—also divided into age groups—were significant, however. Older victims, though
, suffering from similar effects, were both most likely to be injured and less likely to be
taken seriously.
- In about one-third of cases, stalkers vandalized the victim’s property, and about 10 percent of
the time, the stalker killed or threatened to kill the victim’s pet. In nearly half the cases, the
stalker made overt threats to the victim. The survey dispels the myth that most stalkers are
psychotic or delusional. Only 7 percent of the victims perceived their stalkers as “crazy” or
abusers of drugs or alcohol.
- Meloy (1998) asserts that stalkers rarely cause serious physical injury to their victims,
threaten them with weapons, or use weapons. Sheridan et al. (2015), however, reported that
victims were often injured: 29 percent of victims of the mid-group of stalkers (ages 17 to
59) were injured, and 43.1 percent of victims of older stalkers (60 and over) were injured.
About half of the younger stalker group (under 17) threatened their victims physically,
though just over 7 percent of their victims were injured. Even when not injured, the
psychological trauma is often substantial. In a survey of 145 stalking victims (120 females, 25
males), Hall (1998) reports that the experience of being stalked for months or even years is
akin to psychological terrorism. A majority of the victims said their entire lives changed as a
result of being stalked.
Why stalking can be considered criminal: (can add more to this)
- can lead to injury
- sometimes includes vandalism
- often involves threats
- involves the invasion of another person’s private life.
Give an exposition of the categories of stalking.
Some researchers have identified categories or typologies of stalking. A prominent example
is the four-category classification proposed by Beatty (2001): (1) simple obsession
stalking, (2) love obsession stalking, (3) erotomania stalking, and (4) vengeance stalking.
1. simple obsession stalking:
- accounts for the majority of stalking (about 60%), and often represents extensions of
previous patterns of domestic violence and psychological abuse.
- The stalker in these case scenarios usually seeks power and control after a failed
relationship with the victim.
- Simple obsession stalking is perhaps the most dangerous to the victim, since it is often
motivated by the stalker’s conclusion that “If I can’t have you, nobody will.”
2. In love obsession stalking:
- the stalker and victim are casual acquaintances or complete strangers. Stalkers in this
category are characterized by low self-esteem and tend to select victims they perceive
to have certain qualities they believe will raise their self-esteem.
- Essentially, they seek a love relationship with the object of their obsession, contrary
to the wishes of their victim.
, 3. Erotomania stalking:
- Sometimes are considered delusional, and the stalker is often plagued by serious
mental disorders.
- This type of stalker usually targets public figures or celebrities in their misguided
attempts to gain self-esteem and status for themselves. Believe if they can impress the
person, then they will fall madly in love with them.
- Talk show host David Letterman was stalked over a number of years by a woman who
apparently believed she was his wife. The woman frequently trespassed on Letterman’s
property, hid in his home, and even stole his car to go grocery shopping. The delusional
woman eventually took her own life.
- Fortunately, erotomania stalking appears to be relatively rare, and normally the stalker
is not violent.
4. Vengeance stalking:
- is quite different from the other three types, because vengeance stalkers do not seek a
personal relationship with their targets.
- Instead, they try to elicit a particular response or change of behaviour from the
victims.
- For example, the stalker who wishes to torment those responsible for a perceived
injustice or violation of their rights might follow the “guilty parties” day and night
until he is fairly compensated.
Other researchers have classified stalkers according to their relationship with the victim.
Studying over one thousand male and female stalkers, Mohandie, Meloy, Green-McGowan,
and Williams (2006) divided them into intimate stalkers, acquaintance stalkers, public
figure stalkers, and private stranger stalkers. The most violence associated with the
stalking was perpetrated by intimate stalkers, with the least perpetrated by public figure
stalkers. The intimate stalker resembles the simple obsession stalker described above; both
are most likely to result in violence.
What terminates stalking? Some stalkers stop their activity toward the current victim when they find a
new “love” interest. Informal law enforcement interventions also seem to help. More formal
interventions such as arrest, conviction, or restraining orders do not appear to be very effective. When
it comes to persistent, frightening stalking that creates risks to personal safety, the survey suggests
that the most effective method may be to relocate as far away from the offender as possible with no
information of whereabouts provided to the offender. This places an unfair burden on the victim,
however.
Explain what is meant by the concepts “cyberstalking” and
“cyberbullying”.
CYBERSTALKING:
Cyberstalking is using the Internet or other forms of electronic communications to threaten
or engage in unwanted advances toward another. Virtually every state today has laws
criminalizing it. In many laws, a distinction is drawn between cyberstalking and
cyberharassment.
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