EQ1 - what are the impacts of globalisation on international migration?
1.1 - globalisation has led to an increase in migration both within countries and among them
1.1.1 - globalisation has caused extremely significant changes in the global economic system,
changing the pattern of demand for labour
types of migrant
- economic migrant → person who moves voluntarily for work or to improve their social and economic
conditions
- refugee → person who has fled their country and sought protection in another country
- owing to a fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership or a
particular social group or political opinion
- forced migration
- since 2017, lots of refugees have come from Syria
- asylum seeker → person who has applied for refugee status and is waiting for a decision as to whether
or not they qualify
- irregular migrant → a person who enters a country illegally or remains in a country without a valid
visa/permit to do so
types of migration
- migration → permanent or semi-permanent change of residence
- internal migration → takes place within the same country
- international migration → takes place between countries for a minimum of one year
enabling factors in migration
1) transportation
- improvements in modern transport networks allow global labour flows to happen more easily
- passengers on jet aircraft, boats and railways can all travel very large distances
2) land grabs and mechanisation
- land grabbing → TNCs or governments purchasing/renting large areas of land
- mechanisation of agriculture etc may lead people to migrate to find new jobs
3) communication
- the internet has increased the info. available to everyone
- eg people can find international jobs
4) localised migration
- much international migration is regionalised (takes place between a small no. countries)
- eg mexico to usa
- eg within the EU after the Schengen Agreement which allows borderless travel between certain
EU member states
EU’s Schengen Agreement
- 1995
- ended internal border checks within 26 EU countries
- UK never signed
- criticised for making it easy for migrants from outside the EU to travel to high labour demand countries
such as Germany
- in 2015, when more than one million migrants, mostly Syrian refugees, travelled into the EU through
Hungary, temporary border checks were reintroduced
,push factors - migration
1) environmental
- if there is a natural disaster then people may be pushed out of an area
- people may not be able to afford repairs
- desertification can make it harder for people to support themselves as the land becomes less
productive
2) mechanisation
- automation of farming means that fewer jobs are available in rural areas
3) politics/war
- people may be forced to flee their homes because of conflict
- eg, syrian civil war involving Bashar al-Assad
pull factors - migration
1) economic
- some nations provide more jobs, which are often better paid
2) quality of life
- healthcare and education are more easily accessible
3) family
- some migrants may join other family members that have already moved
global shift
- shift in manufacturing jobs to lower wage countries, especially China
- demand for manufacturing workers followed this shift
- rapid industrialisation that took place in these countries created a high demand for workers, which was
met with rural-urban migration
- enables capital to flow freely around the world
- investment has created demand in construction and services
- encouraged international migration → workers travel to where they can earn more and send money
home
rural urban migration → movement of people from traditional farming areas to cities, often industrial cities
1) pull factors
- higher wages of urban economies
- better working conditions
- high provision of services
- many opportunities
2) push factors
- hard work and low wages of traditional rural economies
- low level of services
- lack of opportunities
rural urban migration - China
- China’s rapid industrialisation began when government reforms allowed foreign investment in Chinese
industry
- estimated that more than 200 million rural migrants are currently working in China’s cities
- around 20 million people arriving in cities each year
- migrants are usually low skilled - many find work in construction
- China has 40 million construction workers
- over the next 30 years, up to 400 million more people could move to China’s cities
main drivers of internal migration in China
- opportunities in urban areas (especially manufacturing)
, - mainly agriculture in rural areas
- lack of available land
- lack of adequate housing
- perceptions of poorer educational opportunities]
hukou (household registration) system
- introduced in the 1950s after the Chinese communist revolution to keep people in rural areas,
restricting internal migration
- those moving to cities from rural areas must be registered and buy an expensive permit
- some permits allow permanent migration but normally only to highly educated workers
- without a permit, hukou workers earn less and their families have no entitlement to schooling or
healthcare
- two thirds of urban migrants are men, while the women and children stay in rural areas
- however, now that China depends so much on manufacturing, hukou has become too restrictive
- barrier to urban integration
- pressure on transport due to commuters
- hukou has changed from ‘agricultural’ or ‘non-agricultural’ workers to ‘residents’
- however, the biggest cities impose restrictions to curb population growth
- removal of distinction does not make a difference until the gap in social benefits is filled
international migration
- most of the world’s international migrants reside in high income countries
- 64% in 2017
- half of all international migrants in 2017 were in one of 10 countries
- USA has the most (50 million people), followed by Saudi Arabia, Germany and Russia
- around 10% of all international migrants are refugees or asylum seekers
- majority of these reside in low-income countries: 84% in 2017
- in 2016, it was estimated that 250 million people live in a country where they were born
- about 4% of the world’s population
- until the 1990s, international migration was directed mainly towards developed world destinations eg,
the UK, USA
- more recently, cities in developing countries (like Mumbai, India and Lagos, Nigeria) have become
major global hubs for international migration
1.1.2 - between 3-4% of the global population live outside their country of birth but this proportion
varies greatly between countries because of different policies relating to international migration and
levels of engagement with the global economy (Singapore/Japan/Australia)
international migration in Singapore
- policy of encouraging immigration because its fertility rate is low, and it has an ageing population
- has helped Singapore’s population grow to 5.6 million in 2017
- 64% of Singapore’s population are foreign-born
- around 1.6 million people are non-resident (temporary migrant) population
- 2/3rds of this non-resident workforce is low-skilled workers
- Singapore has recruited workers from neighbouring countries because of high demand in its
construction, domestic labour and manufacturing industries
- very strict about the people considered for permanent resident status
- only skilled workers who should integrate well are considered
- low skilled workers are treated more harshly
- immigrants must leave Singapore within seven days of their contract ending
- immigrants are not allowed to marry Singaporeans without special approval
international migration in Japan
, - Japan has an ageing and shrinking population
- growth rate of -0.21% in 2017, >25% population aged 65 or older)
- Japan needs 200,000 immigrants a year, as well as a fertility rate above replacement level to maintain
its economy and living standards
- many Japanese people believe that increasing immigration would disrupt society and increasing crime
- many believe that restricting immigration has helped Japan to avoid social issues and conflicts
- the proportion of foreign-born people in Japan’s population has risen, but by a very small amount
compared to other developed countries
- when babies are born to parents who were born abroad, have to go about a naturalisation process to
become Japanese citizens
- after the 2008 financial crisis, Japan offered foreign-born residents money to leave
1.1.3 - pattern of international migration is changing and will continue to change because
environmental, economic and political events affect both the source areas of many migrants and their
destinations, resulting in flows of both voluntary economic migrants, refugees and asylum seekers
Lee model of migration
in this model, migration occurs
when the balance of push and pull
factors is strong enough to
overcome intervening obstacles
limitations
- some people have less of
an ability to act on
migration decisions, model
only looks at people’s
desire to act, not whether
they will act
- assume that obstacles are
intervening, obstacles
could be at source or
destination
patterns of migration may change in response to:
1) environmental changes, eg natural hazards
- include impacts of climate change such as sea level rise
- eg, migrants are already leaving low-lying islands such as Kiribati to move to New Zealand
2) economic changes, eg recession and high unemployment
- often influence voluntary migration
- eg, migration from Bangladesh, India and Pakistan to Qatar has increased because of recruitment of
workers for the 2022 FIFA World Cup construction projects
- eg economic migration of europeans to north america in 1880-1910
3) political changes
- can be positive/pull factors
- eg, Canada’s welcoming immigration policy
- political conflict is the main cause of migration by refugees
- eg Syrian civil war, which has created 5 million refugees outside Syria
- eg forced migration of Africans to Americas (slave trade, 16th-19th centuries)
- eg eight million refugees in Europe following the end of WW2 (1945)
- eg movement of Muslims into Pakistan and Hindus and Sikhs into India following partition of India in
1947
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