Unit 35.2 - The British experience of warfare, c1790-1918
Institution
PEARSON (PEARSON)
Covered:
Breadth 1 = Changes in organising the military
Breadth 2 = Changes in the role of the people
These are my revision notes for History British Experience of warfare A-Level, based both on the textbook and my own research, which led me to achieve an A. Easy to read and condensed notes th...
Unit 35.2 - The British experience of warfare, c1790-1918
All documents for this subject (43)
4
reviews
By: zach59 • 9 months ago
By: ellagraceyw • 1 year ago
By: Evelyn820 • 1 year ago
By: clairele-fondre • 2 year ago
Seller
Follow
elliejadeblake
Reviews received
Content preview
HISTORY – THE BRITISH EXPERIENCE OF WARFARE REVISION
BREADTH ONE: Changes in organising the military
Introduction
The Army
Modern British army formed 17th century – organised by government, paid through taxation
Traditionally volunteers, except WW1
3 fighting arms – infantry, cavalry & artillery + support services (engineers. Medical, commissariat)
Each soldier belongs to a regiment (which had its own headquarters, staff & colours/flag – rich history)
Infantry fight in battalions (400-1000men) which divide into companies then platoons
Cavalry regiments often fought together - occasionally split to squadrons
Artillery either Royal Artillery Regiment or Royal Horse Artillery Regiment – battery their tactical unit
During war, these were combined to make larger formations. (Battalions & cavalry regiments = brigades), then from 1970 joint
brigades = divisions. Britain adopted the French Corps system in WW1 (two+ divisions)
The Royal Navy
Simpler – remains the same today
Traditionally volunteers, permitted to conscript men sometimes
Basic units = Ships (given his/her majesty titles & training facilities) –
Ship has a nominal homeport (similar purpose as regiments in the army)
Ships organised into flotillas, then into a fleet (named after what sea)
British Priorities:
To 1795, primarily a naval power
18th and 19th century - maintain the European balance of power. (Protecting their trade routes & creating wider trading
networks. Little need for a full time army - permanent standing army was expensive& worrying during peace time)
1792, 250,000+ serving in the Royal Navy / 40,000 served in the army.
State of the British Army 1795
No Conscription Families allowed to live in the communal barracks
Soldiers paid less than farm workers (‘bounty’ of £40 upon Army discipline harsh (flogging common – 25, 1200 lashes)
registering / being housed/fed an attractive prospect)
Many recruited from lowest echelons of society Active Militia – paid more than regular army, preferred place
An escape from prison / Jails cleared to increase army size Large recruitment of foreign soldiers (KGL – lots of Europeans)
Commissions – Wealth mattered more than talent High Death Rate
The Grand old Duke of York – Commander in Chief 1795
- Stamped out worst excess of purchase schemes
- Free commissions increased (men with talent)
- Established Sandhurst (military college)
- Standardised tactical drills (trained more quickly & units together)
- Created light infantry regiments (95th Rifle Brigade)
Why was it necessary to change the army?
- Experienced a peacetime lull post French wars, then a steady expansion latter 19th century
Improving Organisation - The Regimental System
,- In peacetime, the regimental system they adopted was fit for purpose, serviceman given a home barracks / administered
effectively (cavalry posted as whole/infantry individually)
- Problem = Attracting new recruits
(Military career overlooked by new manual labour factory jobs paying better)
(Being posted in unpopular regiments in the tropics a put off)
(Criminality associated with the army)
- Problem = bastion of privilege
(Purchasing of rank since 18th century)
Meritocracy gained favour with liberals & accelerated when wars revealed the army was not the force it had once been.
(Prussian army success showed poor British leadership)
Improving Supplies – Munitions
Battle of Waterloo – Infantry in long lines, volley fired Brown Bess muskets / Cavalry galloped with swords / Artillery fired solid
round shot / canister.
- Through the century – muskets replaced by rifles… eventually breech loading (by WW1 could operate an array of support
weapons – mortars/machine guns/ tanks post 1916)
- Cavalry changed little BUT Artillery experimenting with high explosive shells (not metal balls)
- New weapons needed more ammunition (Brown Bess musket = 3 bullets a minute for an expert, barrel became so foul with
burnt powder too) – Cavalry fired even fewer
- Fire weapons improved… breech loading rifles needed special bullets in cartridges & quicker firing rate. Steel cannons firing
explosive shells & quicker firing rate.
Improvement in weapon design meant It was no longer possible for the army to make its own munitions
Food & Clothing
- Resembled a group of tramps (poor state of uniform & footwear) – Their dye ran; so they would take the French’s when
they died.. Officers equipped themselves
- French wars, Britain didn’t live off the land, saw benefits on keeping good terms with locals
- Food could be purchased by quartermasters staff BUT mainly transported by Navy (Wellington’s campaign – further inland,
resources were stretched)
Crimean War – little had changed, men in deplorable conditions (clothes/shape etc, worsened by supply inefficiency.),
biggest threat cold/hunger/disease. (Mix of human error & other factors: Weather, state of roads)
“Dregs out of their society” “Instinct for comfort” “Battle shy” “If the sons of better off had been conscripted, beatings
would have been outlawed” – French Soldier describing British Army, 1854.
The Expanding British Empire
1815 = Canada, West indies Islands & Parts of India (plus small staging posts)
End of 19th century = Virtually all India & Large part of Africa & New Asian Possessions
- This expansion = higher need to send armed forces to far flung areas, needed its own professional service
(couldn’t be on an ad hoc basis)
MCNEILL-TULLOCH REPORT
Crimea & It’s Problems
Britain & France trying to bolster Ottoman Empire & check Russian aggression. Limited campaign in Balkans & full-scale
invasion of Crimean peninsula. First months of war was battle then drawn out siege of city.
Report issued 2 stages - June 1855 - condition of common soldier (e.g. diet) & January 1856 – supply of equipment (&medical)
FINDINGS:
Deaths result of disease not enemy
Poor Health because no fresh food (vegetables)
Some units not getting full ration (4th Division)
, Kettles mislaid, not replaced (mess tins) / wood for fire short
Attending duties in spite of poor health
Officers = good example & caring
Slow distribution of supplies (lime juice (scurvy), distributed two months post arrival) (replacement clothing)
Lack of feed for horses (death rate)
Poor communication (supply officer & army command)
Short of medicine & medical supplies
RECCOMENDATION = ORGANISATION / SUPPLY DISTRIBUTION / DIET
organisation & supply procedures to change / The supplies were there but distribution was slow / Nutritious diet needed / Rum
ration replaced by dark beer (iron)
Changes partly a result of this report.
- MAIN = shift of control from army to government (Wellington key in keeping politicians away, NOW the failings meant
government had more power)
- Royal warrant October 1858 (professional reform of the commissariat) – lessened divide (e.g. in charge of ancillary services
– necessary for its function)
Before it was a fighting army force VS civilian extra support split
- Complex process began to be taken ‘in-house’
- Improvement to military medicine (aided by Florence Nightingale & William Russell)
The report caused a scandal – Exposed Crimea & official statistics which could not be ignored OR downplayed
- Criticised army leadership SO Board of Enquiry (Chelsea board) set up to whitewash report (individuals – Sir Richard Airey –
had campaigns to clear their names)
CARDWELL’S ARMY REFORMS, 1868-74
CONTEXT
Crimea revealed weaknesses:
- Post 1856, concern shifted from Europe to British Empire
(Army fit for purpose = small colonial wars) BUT 1868 Empire expansion meant better army needed
ENTER WILLIAM GLADSTONE *1868 election* Liberal government
- Reforming manifesto, passed some of the most important legislation (1870 Education Act)
- Changing strategic situation in Europe / Prussian army sweeping through
Modern, professional, well organised/equipped
400,000 plus RESERVISTS (VS Britain 100,000, almost no reservists)
Problems facing Cardwell:
1. Generals did not want change, beaten Napoleon therefore best in Europe (Wellington) (hence little change from McNeill)
2. Promotion system – European armies based it on merit, Britain based on purchasing rank (wealthy only)
Cheapest £450, farmers earned £30-£40 a year PRG
Officers protested this system worked *Wellington/Hill etc. led Britain to victory in French wars* Crimea showed the
opposite
3. Recruitment: major concern (economic prosperity = army not a good prospect / factory better, flogging/branding, 12 years)
The reforms:
Organisation of army & social structure
- Reorganised war office; clear divisions of duties
- Army Enlistment Short Service Act –6 years overseas/6 years reserve
- 21 years = pension
- Regulation of the forces (1871) – abolished general service, men could choose regiment
- Localisation Act (1872) – 66 local regiment districts, stationed where they live (following Prussians) (2 batallions = 1 sea/1
home)
- Purchasing of commissions abolished – a meritocracy
The benefits of buying summaries with Stuvia:
Guaranteed quality through customer reviews
Stuvia customers have reviewed more than 700,000 summaries. This how you know that you are buying the best documents.
Quick and easy check-out
You can quickly pay through credit card or Stuvia-credit for the summaries. There is no membership needed.
Focus on what matters
Your fellow students write the study notes themselves, which is why the documents are always reliable and up-to-date. This ensures you quickly get to the core!
Frequently asked questions
What do I get when I buy this document?
You get a PDF, available immediately after your purchase. The purchased document is accessible anytime, anywhere and indefinitely through your profile.
Satisfaction guarantee: how does it work?
Our satisfaction guarantee ensures that you always find a study document that suits you well. You fill out a form, and our customer service team takes care of the rest.
Who am I buying these notes from?
Stuvia is a marketplace, so you are not buying this document from us, but from seller elliejadeblake. Stuvia facilitates payment to the seller.
Will I be stuck with a subscription?
No, you only buy these notes for $10.31. You're not tied to anything after your purchase.
