Summary
Summary E2SC English Language Structures C (E2SC)
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This summary contains all the theory of the E2SC course in diagrams. Sample sentences have also been added to clarify the course material.
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ModalsMood and modality
Mood: category of grammar
Modality: category of meaning
expresses attitude towards the proposition that is made:
Domains of modality
Factuality: truth value
Necessity: he must have written it himself
Possibility: he may have written it himself
Extension beyond the speaker’s subjective attitude: Kim thinks he must have written it himself
Actualisation: realisation of proposition
Necessity: you must leave!
Possibility: you may leave if you want to
Extension beyond the speaker’s subjective attitude: He says you must leave
Linguistic expression
Analytic mood system
modal auxiliaries
Lexical modals
same meaning; different syntactic class
Adjectives Adverbs Verbs Nouns
Possible Possibly Insist Possibility
Necessary Necessarily Require Necessity
Probable Probably Permit Permission
(un)likely Perhaps Suggest
Bound Certainly
Supposed Surely
Definitely
Past tense
modal remoteness
Open possibility: If you do that again, you’ll be fired
Remote possibility: If you did that again, you would be fired
Will <> would; can <> could; may <> might
Other verb inflection
Plain form of the verb:
1
, Finite: imperatives; mandative constructions
Non-finite : infinitival <> gerund-participial construction
He’s the one to do the job. <> He’s the one doing the job.
I want to dance with you. <> I enjoy dancing with you.
= not actualised <> actual
Clause type
Declarative :
Factuality
Unmodalised: in absence of other markers of modality
Imperative
Actualisation
Directives
Interrogative
Possibility
Questions
Subordination
Certain uses of some of the modal auxiliaries
It is strange that he should be so quiet. emotive
Mandative constructions
It is essential that he be/should be told.
Conditionals
Parentheticals
Lexical modals: think, seem, etc.
I think that going to church does not make you a Christian any more than standing in a garage makes
you a car.
Modal particles
Well, in fact, so, now, etc.
Dimensions of modality
Strength
Kind
Degree
Strength of modality
Strong <> weak modality
Necessity: strong
Possibility: weak
Internal <> external negation
Internal: negation in subclause
He may not have read it.
You mustn’t eat it all. It’s necessary that you not eat it all.
External: negation in matrix (main) clause
He can’t have read it.
He needn’t eat it all. It isn’t necessary for you to eat it all.
2
,Semantic <> pragmatic strength
Semantic strength: modal
Pragmatic strength: context
Example 1:
(A) You must leave my office immediately. order (no freedom for addressee)
(B) You must try one of these cakes. offer (freedom for addressee)
Semantic strength of must: strong
(B) Pragmatic weakening: context shows that it expresses possibility rather than necessity
Example 2:
(A) You may park your car on my lawn, if you like. weak modality (permission)
(B) I hope the message is clear? If so, you may leave and act accordingly. stronger modality (order)
Semantic strength of may: weak
(B) Pragmatic strengthening: context shows that is expresses order rather than permission
Medium modality
Should, ought (+ lexical modals: probable, likely, appear, seem, etc.)
The meeting should be over by now. (but it may not be)
Note: pragmatic difference between internal and external negation = less pervasive with medium
modality
He is likely not to be ready. (internal) <> He isn’t likely to be ready. (external)
Kind of modality
Deontic
Epistemic
Dynamic
cut across the dimension of strength
Epistemic: speaker’s attitude to the factuality (qualifications concerning the speaker’s
knowledge)
Deontic: speaker’s attitude to the actualisation (obligations, prohibitions, permissions, etc.)
Dynamic: properties and dispositions of persons (justified by existing ambiguity)
Deontic <> epistemic:
Strong He must have been delayed. Epistemic
You must be quiet. Deontic
You must be very tactful. Ambiguous
Weak He may have been delayed. Epistemic
You may stay if you wish. Deontic
He may sleep downstairs. Ambiguous
Degree of modality
Extent to which there is a clearly identifiable and separable element of modal meaning
High degree modality: factuality changes sharply
They know her. <> They might know her.
3
, Low degree modality: no sharp distinctions in meaning
Strange as it seems, I believe you. <> Strange as it may seem, I believe you.
Degree <> strength
E.g. may, should, will: different strength (weak, medium, strong) but can express both low and high
degree modality
Modal harmony
Cause of low degree modality: harmony with the modality of the larger construction
Strange as it seems/ may seem: “although it seems strange” concessive uses
The meeting must surely be over by now: both strong
The meeting should probably be over by now: both medium
The meeting may possibly be over by now: both weak
Non-harmonic combination:
It may surely have been an accident Surely it is possible that it was an accident.
Modal auxiliaries
express degrees of obligation, certainty, ability, volition
Formal criteria: (<> other auxiliaries)
No -s in 3rd person
No non-finite forms
No co-occurrence within the same verb phrase
+ bare inf
4
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