Summary Exploring Humans, ISBN: 9789085062264 Philosophy of Science and Methodology (PSM) for Communication Science Course at the UVA
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Course
Philosophy of Science and Methodology (PSM)
Institution
Universiteit Van Amsterdam (UvA)
Book
Exploring Humans
Summary of all Lectures and referencing to relevant page numbers throughout (highly useful for open book exams), and revision summaries.
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Samenvatting Exploring Humans - Philosophy of the social sciences (3801PSQPVY)
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Communicatiewetenschap
Philosophy of Science and Methodology (PSM)
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PSM – science in times of ‘alternative facts’ and political correctness
Lecture 1: Introduction
Part A: Clashing views on Science (p.11-14)
Preface: the problem with facts today
- Agora = a central public space → could be a pub
- Philosophers ask big questions, usually raising more questions than answers. An
exercise in critical thinking.
- Corona virus as an issue → what are the facts? What are the myths?
- Facts are up for discussion (social media, mediated society), facts are disputed
- Why is it important to know the facts?
o To make choices
o To take decisions
o To make policy
o In all: to distinguish between true and false
- Where do we usually look for facts?
o Science: natural and social sciences
o Science is the “crowning achievement of the human mind”
▪ Natural facts e.g., water freezes
▪ Social facts e.g., we are more literate now than in 1475
▪ Technological facts
Two philosophical positions about science
- Scientism → ‘science is vastly superior to all other attempts at securing knowledge:
its laws provide certainty’ (book, p. 11)
o We have certainty through science. Facts, science is the truth, rationality
o Modernism = = modern thinking: rational-secular (= without religion), think for
yourself, use reason only; modernity
o Knowledge and truth about nature and humans are only found by and in
science
o Slogan → The scientific method is the only method to obtain facts and the
truth
o Science is about everything
o Our mind is a perfect mirror of reality
o ‘Icons’ (= symbols or representatives) of scientism (or ‘accused’ of scientism):
Richard Dawkins, Lawrence Krauss
- Scepticism → Science does not give certainty, it is equal to other forms of
knowledge, science is a faith (book, pp. 12-13)
o Critical thinking about science, against methodological rules, with a pluralistic
conception of rationality and knowledge
o Our mind is a crooked mirror; we know nothing and we never will
o More than one truth, truth is experience, uncertainty, knowledge = oppressive
power, science is an ideology
o Post modernism = post (after) modernism: also secular thinking but different:
individual and emotional expression are key
o Knowledge and truth are social constructions that need ‘deconstruction’
relativism/nihilism (don’t believe in anything)
o They need deconstruction because reality is simply a social construction
o Slogan → anything goes
o Icons: Paul Feyerabend → denial of scientific fact
,PSM – science in times of ‘alternative facts’ and political correctness
- Ongoing debate, keeps coming back in the history of philosophy of science
Anything Goes?
- Philosophical scepticism is critical thinking about science within the boundaries of
philosophy → epistemic (knowledge) scepticism
- A radical interpretation of philosophical scepticism has become like a raging fire in
society (= relativism = everything is relative; science is just an opinion)
- Scientism vs scepticism is the background of the issue/societal debate in society:
o ‘alternative facts’
o ‘fact free politics’
o fake news
o post-truth’ era
o political correctness, freedom of speech, identity politics and conformism
- Misinformation or disinformation
- Scepticism examples in society → vaccinations, climate change, flat earth
- Relativism → there is no such thing as truth, everyone has their own truth
Part B: Exploring the world scientifically (Watt &
Van den Berg, p.1-10)
Exploring humans: How do we investigate the world?
- Humans are explorative, curiosity defines human consciousness
- Observations provides us with evidence for explorations
- Two basic exploration styles
o Naïve inquiry → Non formalized, non systematic and non controlled form of
collecting and summarizing information into naive theories (Watt & Van den
Berg, 2002. p. 3)
o Scientific Inquiry → ‘highly formalized, systematic and controlled inquiry’
‘observations and reasoning are error prone’ (Watt & van den Berg, 2002, p.
3) By using the scientific method, always aware of the temporality of their
conclusions
- Naïve inquiry
o Common sense: what we do in daily life
o Premodern thinking: religious thinking, belief in a given truth (e.g. by a god)
o Non-sophisticated ways of knowing reality (fixing belief)
o Methods of knowing
▪ Tenacity: what is commonly known is true
▪ Authority: high regarded person speaks the truth
▪ Reasonable man: reason and logical consistency is key to this method
of knowing (Watt & Van den Berg, 2002, p. 6-7)
o E.g. superstitions, astrology, religion, conspiracy
o Biases, convictions, popular scepticism, some forms of postmodernism, myth
o ‘Slogan → ‘I have this theory’: The use of the word theory when a hypothesis
or speculation is meant, not scientific
- Scientific Inquiry
o ‘Science shifts the locus of truth from single individuals to groups, by
establishing a set of mutually agreed upon rules for establishing truth.’ (Watt
& Van den Berg, p. 7)
o -The scientific method -Modern thinking -Analytical-empirical approach;
experimental research – empirical cycle
,PSM – science in times of ‘alternative facts’ and political correctness
o Critical shift in perspective compared to naive inquiry
o Internal beliefs should be supported by external evidence
o Methodological rigour, modelling
o Slogan → Truth is an objective reality ‘out there’ and our ideas do not alter
that reality We develop theories that are true
The 5 pillars of the scientific method
- “A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions
that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among
variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena.” (Kerlinger,
1986, in Watt & Van den Berg, 2002, p. 2; explanation p.2-3)
- Develop theories by using the scientific method: testing theories, control of
alternative explanations, attention for the nature of relationships, use observable
evidence (Watt & Van den Berg, 2002, p. 4-6)
- Scientific method:
, PSM – science in times of ‘alternative facts’ and political correctness
o 1. The use and selection of concepts (variables)
o 2. Linking concepts (variables) to propositions (hypotheses)
o 3. Testing theories with observable evidence
o 4. The definition of concepts (variables)
o 5. The publication of definitions and procedures
o 6. Control of alternative explanation
o 7. Unbiased selection of evidence
o 8. Reconciliation of theory and observation
- Goal of science is to find true, and content-rich statements, laws, or theories relating
to a given domain of phenomena (Schurz, p. 19) (e.g. communication)
o 1st pillar → Empiricism, science is about observable phenomena
o 2nd pillar → realism
o 3rd pillar → objectivity
o 4th pillar → Logic, reasoning
o 5th pillar → critical thinking, humans are fallible, could always be wrong
- Scientists are careful with what they say because they are unsure.
A bird’s eye view of the course. Why are we studying this? How is it relevant?
- Philosophy of science
o Special branch of philosophy: analyses the methods of inquiry used in the
sciences
o Main questions in philosophy of science:
▪ What are the sources of knowledge?
▪ What is science and how does it differ from nonscience?
▪ How do we handle knowledge and science today?
▪ What is rational, what is truth and what is real?
▪ What is wisdom about science?
o Meta theory (= theory about theory, e.g. what is the theory behind
communication science theories?)
- The story of enlightenment = one of the greatest intellectual projects in human history
- Key Points:
o Facts are problematic these days (and they have always been)
o There are two philosophical positions on science (and every position in
between): scientism and scepticism
o Connected to modern and post modern (and sometimes relativistic thinking).
Anything goes? Does it?
o Humans are exploring creatures and have two contrasting ways of knowing
and researching: naive inquiry and scientific inquiry (the scientific method)
o Science aims to find true, objective and real theories by using observation,
logic and a critical attitude How did we (as humankind) end up here?
o How can science reach it’s goal? What have philosophers thought about
science through the ages and what have they done to defy scepticism and
relativism?
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