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Summary SOCIOLOGY ALEVEL MEDIA NOTES A*
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researchers mentioned, all topics covered related to media, topic wise notes
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The traditional and the new mediaTrends affecting the organisation of media, including cross media ownership, digitalisation, media
conglomerates and social media
Media; channels of mass communication through which information is sent and received.
Media usually refers to one-way communication with many people simultaneously.
Dutton et al 1998 - media is impersonal, one-way, physically and technologically distant, organised,
large-scale and simultaneous, commodified and lacking in immediacy (involvement).
New Media however can be one on one, one to many, many to many. The variety of ways of communication
is a defining characteristic of new media, the similarity between old and new media is of ownership and
control.
In modern industrial societies, media follows processes of conglomeration and concentration.
Concentration of ownership refers to a relatively small group of large corporations and powerful individuals
owning media.
In the past 50 years. Trend has been of fewer media owners controlling larger corporations.
New media; contemporary channels of communication characterised by their interactivity, individualisation
and network capabilities.
Concentration of ownership is a part of long-term global trend. This affects product diversity, consumers
offered limited range of similar media products with the same intended messages or information.
McChesney 2000 - media appears to offer choice but consists of homogenous, repetitive and cheaply-made
content.
Media corporations can develop, gain/lose market share, takeover or be taken over.
Conglomeration is the diversification of media platforms into different interests. This is known as
cross-media ownership.
Conglomeration; when a media corporation develops interests across different media through a process of
diversification, it becomes a conglomerate.
Cross-media ownership; when a private or public company owns different types of media such as newspaper,
television channel and film production studio.
Digitalisation; change of media from analog to digital form. All older forms of media have been digitalised to
some extent. Due to digitalisation, media can be consumed at any time, and through multiple devices and
medium. Digitalisation, the expansion of the internet and widespread use of computer have made
interactive media possible, in which people can communicate with each other both sharing and consuming
information. (Line in Japan, WeChat China). Social media allows many-to-many communication. Although it
is owned by large media corporations, it allows users to create their own content and networks. It is
different from traditional, one on one communication. It is also different from traditional mass media in
which information and messages are sent from one point of production to a large number on consumers.
Social media encompasses social networks, social gaming, video-sharing, blogs and virtual worlds. As social
media is relatively new, in terms of wide-spread use and impact, and rapidly progressing and changing,
sociological research is also new and at risk of becoming outdated.
Digitalisation; the conversion of an analog source into a computer-readable (digital) one.
Interactive media; media such as video games, that allow user to influence the direction and flow of debates,
actions and outcomes.
Social media; new media through which people can interact with each other, sharing and consuming
information and creating networks.
Debate about who controls the media
There is debate about the extent to which media is controlled by owners or others/users. There are two
types of media owners;
Private ownership refers to companies run for profit by individuals, families or shareholders.
State ownership involves government controls that differ between societies. In China, state regulates access
to internet and oversees content of state-run television. In UK, BBC that is indirectly state-run was the only
company controlling television and radio (broadcast media).
,Owners have the potential to decide information to be received by audience. This involves direct and/or
indirect censorship. An alternative interpretation is that daily operations are controlled by senior-workers
(controllers) rather than the owners. As the owners are often shareholders without complete ownership of
company, they do not have enough power to control the company. Pluralist approach argues that control of
media is largely in hands of, as said by Galbraith 1967, the 'technocratic managerial elite) who remain
employees rather than employers. To remain profitable and in business, companies must cater to the
demands on consumers, thus in a competitive world, consumers main a collective influence on
organisational behavior. Companies unwilling to adapt to customers risk losing market share to more
compliant companies. Where media companies are forced to compete for customers, power is given to
consumers.
Censorship; the deliberate suppression of communication or information.
Media ownership; economic control of a media organisation.
Differences between new media and traditional media
'New economic shift' Davis and McAdam 2000 has been onset by globalisation causing diversity and
competition. Media corporations now transcend national boundaries and their flexible organisation
structures allow them to respond to new technological changes. Their shareholders are normally banks and
pension funds, but they rarely have individual owners. Although Mark Zuckerberg originally created
Facebook, it known owned by a large group of institutional and individual shareholders. Modern media
conglomerates can be seen as operating in a wide range of different markets to cater to wide range of
consumer needs and demands. This economic situation has resulted in different types of publications; print,
broadcasting, digital media. Media diversity has further increased due to growth of cheap, widely available
computer technology based on web distribution systems. Th internet has reduced costs of media production,
made entry into media open for all, and given producers access to a global audience.
New media has more interactivity than traditional media. Rather than publications in traditional media, new
media allows users to create their own media. Contribution to traditional media, e.g photographs (visual,
auditory media) and new media, has become easier.
The debate about whether the traditional media has been undermined by the growth of the new media
New technologies have created possibility of the consumption of different media on the same device.
Although this has changed the way media is used, it can reach audience in new ways. Audio, despite being
the oldest form of media is still popular and accessible globally due to creation of newer, compact devices.
Radio plays a key role in developing countries where television access is not widespread. Newspaper has also
adapted to new technology despite availability of freely available news online and changes in media
consumption habits. Newspaper reading has had a significant long-term decline but newspaper publication
have resorted to online and print publications, gaining access to wider, international audience as well. The
British Daily Mail has a reduced number on print readers but the website gains 50 million visitors each
month. Television remains a widely popular leisure activity with 85% of adults watching TV in their free time.
Television now includes many more channels and also broadcasts through satellite for viewers with limited
services. New form of television now includes, high definition channels, screen recording services,
on-demand and catch up services and availability on PCs and smartphones. Globally, it now encompasses
younger audience, and audience with different levels of access to digital media. Diaspora (dispersed)
community can now watch television of their origin, in their languages. In countries such as UK and USA
where technology is established, is the fragmentation of audiences. Apart from communal events such as
World Cups, families are less likely to watch television together, primarily due to ownership of personal
devices. Many households now have more than one TV, due to cheaper TVs available. More channels cater
to niche audiences and programme diversity has increased. Although TV adapted to new media, it no longer
is a unifying force. As traditional media has adapted, national governments and private owners now have
limited control on information. In the digital age, most populations are not restricted to passive media
, consumption. International sources can be searched for information, as Weinberger 2012 states, 'for every
fact on the internet, there is an equal and opposite fact.' these ideas question media's ideological role.
Theories of the media and influences on media content.
Pluralist theories of the media also known as 'Market Model'
Pluralism covers range of ideas that loosely reject Marxist interpretations. Pluralist perspectives share a
number of general beliefs about the role of media, with different expressions and emphasis. These
approaches are characterised by the significance placed on information diversity. Even in highly
concentrated ownership of old media, pluralists believe that a range of views are still available. New media
enhances this diversity as low start-up, production and distribution costs have created a growth of media
outlets. Diversity is related to choice - in terms of different media and views, and consumers.
Diversity and choice means consumers hold control over media and its ideology rather than the producers.
Businesses unwilling to oblige are at risk of going out of business. Profit incentive and competition creates
innovation and diversity. To gain a larger market share, corporations must innovate. Media audiences are
active and consume media that fits their lifestyles and preferences, and reflects their political and ideological
opinions. Pluralist arguments reverse Marxist arguments that consumer accept what media offers. Instead
they demand what they want. Media controllers are given a potentially powerful position, as they are the
ones responsible to satisfy media consumer demands of society. Profits are earned and consumers receive
information and entertainment.
A diverse range of media exists and people can choose from different sources of information, this applies to
old and new media. Global and national sources can provide information, and the activities of the powerful
can be studied, exposed and criticised.
Pluralists arguments have validity in the context of cheap, accessible, global distribution systems such as the
internet and changing nature of media markets, they have been criticised for several reasons.
Pluralism overstates separation of ownership and control in modern media conglomerates. Murdock and
Golding 1977 - separation of interests between owners and controller is more apparent than real, as owners
are often also managers.
Major shareholders exert control over the businesses (Rupert Murdoch's family, News Corp). Moreover,
although internet has made it more difficult to control what the audience sees, old media may have larger
audiences as it may be considered more reliable and trustworthy as a source of information.
Pluralists argue that media diversity guarantees consumer choice but competition des not automatically
mean media diversity. Economies of scale mean that the majority of consumer demands can be satisfied by a
few giant corporations holding great economic, political and ideological power on a global scale. Diversity of
web-based media may also be overstated as large corporations such as Apple and Amazon exert tight
controls over what is published. iTunes store controls songs sold, and unacceptable items may be excluded
from sale, thus being a large scale corporation with much of the market share allows significant control.
Marxist and neo-marxist theories of the media
Traditional Marxism claims that media is the most important and influential ideological institute. Media
owners have a great deal of power. This is a determinist approach; media believed to shape, and in some
instances, fully decide people's general thoughts and behaviours. This is also sometimes referred to as the
manipulative or instrumental Marxist approach.
The media are a part of the political and ideological superstructure, propagating capitalist values through
ideas such as:
Support for capitalism
Rationalising and justifying social inequalities
Defending the concept of private property
The private ownership of profits
Negative labelling of alternatives to capitalism
The media is seen as a tool used by the ruling class to favour bourgeoisie interests. Althusser 1971 sees
the media has ideological state apparatus in which the owners and controllers of the media create a 'false
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