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Summary MBS 1 Final Exam Study Guide
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study guide for the final exam of the course Mind, Behavior, and Society 1
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Summary The Psychology of Influence Pligt & Vliek- The Psychology of Media and Communication (6464EC03Y_2324_S1)
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Lecture 1: Attitudes● Behavior change
○ i.e. speeding: not forced on by external government but by locals, social enforcement,
this worked better
● Behavior analysis, predictors: people need to have positive attitudes
● Attitude: discussed in terms of evaluation of a particular entity (attitude objects) with a degree
of favor or disfavor
○ Attitude valence: negative-positive
○ Attitude strength: i.e. attitude towards balloons is weaker than child, though same
valence
■ Strong attitude: stable, resistant, accessible (mental accessibility, how
frequent you remember), certain, predictive of behavior
● Attitude stability:
○ File drawer model: you have information on attitude object stored in a memory and
your evaluation of this object is also stored in the memory, explains why your attitude
stays same over time
○ Temporary construction: what you feel at the moment constructs your attitude, so it
can change
● Attitudes are invisible: latent constructs
○ Never directly observed/measured, only indicated
○ Observable: stimuli that denote attitude object → inferred: attitude → observable:
cognitive, affective, behavioral response
● So all attitude objects consist of these: which make up the CAB (tripartite) model; all these
taken and weighed together makes up our attitude
○ Cognitive: beliefs, thoughts, associated with object
○ Affective: feelings, emotions experienced with regards to object
○ Behavioral: overt actions/ intentions exhibited in relation to the object
● Negative information weighs heavier than positive information, and also personally relevant
information
● Accessible information: i.e. in a newspaper
● Salient information
● We have all kinds of information that cognitive, affective, behavioral in nature and these make
up our attitude
● Structure of attitudes:
○ One dimension: - ------x-- +
○ Two dimensions: graph form
■ This allows us to explain the concept of (1) attitudinal ambivalence:
● Inclination to give an object equally strong positive and negative
evaluations
● Related to attitude strength, attitude pliability, attitude-behavior
relationship
● Within one component: Trump is selfish
● Between components: I voted against Trump
● Is attitudinal ambivalence discomforting?
○ Only in case of ambivalent awareness: felt vs. potential ambivalence (making mixed
feelings)
● Function of attitudes:
, ○ Object appraisal: organize knowledge about object
○ Ego-defense: attitudes protect self-esteem (i.e. people criticizing us we don’t like)
○ Value-expressive: express our central values and social identity
● Measurement of attitudes:
● (1) Explicit measures:
○ Likert items
○ EV (expectancy value):
■ attitude=sum of (E x V)
■ Expectancy: belief that object has certain characteristics
■ Value: how much belief is valued
○ Semantic differential: two opposite adjectives
■ Beware in questions: double-barreled, leading, loading, unclear questions
■ Also order effects (order of questions) and scale effects (different scales)
■ Social desirability/impression management
● Due to these disadvantages: (2) implicit measures:
○ Evaluative priming task (Fazio)
■ participants are first presented with a prime stimulus (which they are
instructed to ignore), followed by a target word, which they are instructed to
classify as positive/negative.
■ When the valence of the prime and the target is the same (both positive or
both negative), classifying the target word is faster compared to trials in
which the valence is opposite.
■ So participants don’t have to judge (consider) the prime, only the target. But
because they are exposed to the prime, it does influence them. And our
working memory works in such a way that if we have to decide that a target
is positive, it takes a little longer when it has to switch from negative
information (that was activated by the prime) compared to when primed and
target stimuli are both positive.
○ Implicit association test (Greenward) (IAT)
■ Criticism: are we measuring attitude or association?
■ Evaluation always in comparison of two different groups (single target IAT)
● Implicit attitudes: how do they relate to explicit attitudes?
○ Low correlation when sensitive topic due to social desirability (i.e. race) but when
non-sensitive, the two tests have high correlations (coke vs. pepsi)
● How well these measures predict behavior?
○ Some non-friendly behavior predicted better with implicit attitudes than explicit
attitudes
○ Implicit attitudes: spontaneous behavior, explicit attitudes: controlled behavior
■ When the two are strongly related, behavior prediction is strongest
Chapter 1: Influence
● Influence in the form of public information and advertising
○ “Call attention to,” “to notify or warn”
● Gibson’s experiments: we don’t recall many of the messages that we see
○ But we often recognize them (information internalized)
● Influence research
○ Lasswell’s model of communication and research on attitudes/ change
○ Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect
, ○ Attitude as an evaluative response to a person/organization/idea etc.
● Hovland: reliability and expertise of the source help determine how a message affects the
recipient’s attitudes/behavior
○ Direct vs. indirect impact of message
○ Four step process model of persuasion
■ Pay attention to information of message (attention)
■ Message is understandable (understanding)
■ Recipient accepts and modifies her attitude accordingly (acceptance)
■ Retain this attitude (retention)
● Yale model of persuasion:
○ Content; source; recipient → attention > understanding > acceptance → attitudes;
behavior
● McGuire’s inoculation theory: presentation, attention, comprehension, yielding (accepting
arguments), retention, behavior
● Greenwald’s cognitive response theory: about how information is processed and how that
affects attitudes
● Influencing message recipients in advertising and marketing
○ AIDA(s) model: attention, interest, desire, action, satisfaction
● Code of advertising (COA): ethical rules
● Vicary’s coke and pop-corn invisible messages: people can be influenced without realizing
● Characteristics of information: source, content, form
○ Attitude is a factor that frequently determined the way people behave
■ Information → Processing → Outcome
■ source attention motivation and skills
■ content information-processing attitudes → behavior
■ form acceptance social context
○ Persuasion heuristics, emotions, punishment, reward unconscious influence
Considerable attention/reasoned ------------------------- little attention/automatic
● (information processing and attitude formation and change)
Maio et al.: The Psychology of Attitudes and Attitude Change
● Attitude: reporting an attitude
○ Liking vs. disliking
○ Favoring vs. disfavoring
● Overall evaluation of an object based on cognitive, affective, behavioral information
○ Valence and strength
● Attitudes can only be inferred from people’s responses:
● (1) direct (explicit) measures of attitudes
○ An attitude is a latent construct, which means it cannot be observed or measured
directly, but we think it is something like an evaluation (feeling) of an object that
exists inside people’s minds. It is a challenge to get that information from inside a
person’s mind and express it into an observable score (measurement).
○ One way to measure by simply asking (e.g., ‘What is your attitude towards the death
penalty?’ for example on a 10-point Likert scale that ranges from 1- very negative, to
10 -very positive). Then a person’s explicit attitude is expressed by, for example, a 7.
○ Equal appearing intervals method (EAI)
○ Likert scale to assess attitudes (different items are used with unknown scale values,
unlike EAI)
, ○ Semantic differential approach (most influential) (bipolar adjective scales)
○ Problems:
■ people can be unaware of their attitudes
■ Impression management (political/social appropriateness)
● (2) indirect (implicit) measures of attitudes
○ Another way is to do it with an implicit attitude task (like the EP or the IAT), and then
a person’s (implicit) attitude is expressed by the difference in response time to certain
type of trials.
○ Evaluative priming (EP): when explicit measures are subjected to social desirability
○ Implicit association test (IAT): asked to classify adjectives and attitude objects
○ Other measures:
■ Galvanic skin response (GSR)
■ Pupillary dilation
■ Facial EMG
■ Event-related potentials (ERPs)
■ fMRI
● The difference between these two types of measurements is that in the implicit tasks, people
can’t consciously reflect on their attitude because the tasks involve making quick
positive/negative decisions about target words (or pictures).
○ Which one is the “real” attitude?
■ Ongoing research
■ latent constructs, we can’t observe them directly
■ all we have is the scores on these different types of measurement and then
have to guess what they mean.
■ The scores of the two measurements don’t always correlate well
○ for example, if I take a group of people and explicitly ask them for their attitude
towards the death penalty on a Likert scale and also have them do an EP task with
death penalty related prime words, I can see if those people that have high scores on
the explicit task also have high scores on the implicit task (and the same for low
scores). But we know that this is not always the case, especially not for objects that
are politically sensitive and are multi-faceted (have many aspects), like death penalty.
Correlations are high for objects like coca-cola though (attitudes that are ‘easy’ and
have no social desirability element). A similar thing seems to happen for the
relationship with attitude scores and future behaviors (the so called predictive validity
of the attitudes). Explicit attitudes seems to be more related to deliberate behaviors
(like choosing which universities to go to) and implicit ones more to ‘spontaneous’
(not deliberate, feel-based) behaviors like choosing a romantic partner. But like I said,
research in this domain is still on-going.
● A sound measurement should be reliable and valid:
○ Valid if it assess the construct it is designed to target
○ Reliable due to internal consistency (whether different items assess same
psychological construct) and test-retest reliability
● Explicit measures: high reliability
○ Also linked with evidence for validity
● Implicit measures: often convergence and predictive validity
● Reliability and validity of a measure should be viewed in the context of the measure (context
like the nature of the attitude object)
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