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Summary Weekly Reading Notes for HIST 338
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This document contains all my reading notes for the assigned readings throughout the class in the Winter 2o2o term.
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From Winter 2020:HIST 338 Reading Notes:
Week 1: Introduction
Road to Revolution by - Context for 19th century China, 1895-1919.
Zarrow (chapter 1 - Beginning of the 19th century is marked by the educated feeling China is in decline.
- Peasant rebellions of the 19th century made for economic insecurity, conflict, and
further colonial control.
- Defeat by Japan in Korea in 1895, is the final straw.
- Tension/conflict between reformists and conservatives.
- Context gives rise to the Boxer movement, a rejection of Christianity (and therefore European
influence) that culminated in the decentralized occupation of major cities and eventually
violent foreign suppression.
- Beginning in the Northwest Shandong, farmers embody North Chinese culture and
reject religious influences.
- Hatred of Christianity; blamed for hardships, seen as “poisoners” of
Chinese, church always sides with Christians and ignores complaints.
- Originally seen as more defense militia groups, Qing leaves them since the
government is broken.
- Burn down churches, collect money from supportive/fearful leaders, kill
missionaries, target “foreign” things.
- Spreading down China, eventually occupying Beijing and Taoijong, even supported
by the Qing imperial court and the Empress Dowager Cixi.
- Western powers and Japan work together to stamp out these rebellions violently.
- Boxers and Qing are punished for their actions, mass violence against the
Chinese as the military gains control.
- Cixi is forced to flee, then reinstated with limited power so the Qing
government can continue.
- Gives foreigners their justification to suppress and control Chinese, colonize
and destroy.
- Result is more foreign control in China, mass violence, more economic insecurity, and a
contribution to fear of “yellow peril” in China.
- Boxers are controversial; some idealize, some demonize, etc. Symbol for nationalism into the
20th century.
- Further tensions from overpopulations, economic decline, class tensions, foreign intrusion,
fear of imperial control, consequences of Opium wars.
- Foreigners have too much control and power; outside of Chinese law and division of
territory between foreign powers.
- Racism against China is widespread.
- Lots of influence on the economy and society, but very inconspicuous.
- The radicalism of intelligence and scramble for Chinese power is the context for all 20th
century rebellion and events.
Yellow Peril by Tchen and - Several primary sources that highlight European distrust and fear of China.
Yeats - Seen as anti-Christian, lazy, hard-working.
- “Yellow Peril” that will overtake Europe, the “red sea” of communism that will
overtake capitalism and destroy British values.
- The Chinese are an enigma, both mysterious and simple. Stereotypes are hypocritical, where
they are overly logical and contain no logic.
- They will invade Europe, but it will be a peaceful and slow takeover. They must be suppressed
and controlled, or else they will suppress and control Europe.
, - Extension of the fear of Asia, Japan (slightly less) and Russia (especially in the Cold War)
- From the Cold War into modern times, there is a fear of communism (Asia) that spreads to the
US too.
- Emphasis on nuclear fears (cold war), economic takeover (China expansion), military
power (US must be strong to target the world), knowledge comparison (gain and
control more knowledge). Xenophobia.
- Japanese and Chinese distaste fuels orientalism, fears of the “red,” association with Russia.
Week 2: Semi-Colonialism
Road to Revolution by - Two sides of debate; gradual reformers (constitutional monarchies) and impulsive
Zarrow (chapter 3) revolutionaries (republic).
- Both sought a form of gradually established democracy and rejected the current
system, both could be considered ‘nationalists,’ both believed change was how
China could survive.
- Social Darwinism demonstrates only the strong will survive, a movement
away from Confucianism and ‘Old China.’
- Rejection of the status quo and stagnation.
- Reformers want assimilation of ethnic groups, revolutionaries want revenge for
Manchus' treatment of Hans.
- Reformers see nationalism as a multi-ethnic state (one with many leaders and one
symbolic emperor to inspire togetherness) , revolutionaires see nationalism as
embracing Han Chinese rule with a complete democracy and no lineage privileges.
- As old ideas collapse, a growing necessity to define Chinese nationalism, political
independence, authority, freedom, public sway, etc in the midst of chaos.
- A romanticization of passion and freedoms, people seek to inspire and become
martyrs.
- Significance of time, as both reformers and revolutionaries define the beginning of time
based on beliefs (Confucius vs the Yellow Emperor), with revolutionaires winning in the end
to begin the republic in year one in 1912.
- Both culture and ethnicity are used to define China in history, culture = imperial and enthnic
= modern nation.
- The Chinese nation existed, but never as a nation-state. No strong nationalism or ties to
national identity.
- Following the 19th c. Europe, the 20th century brings into existence a new
nation-state that must convince the people to identify with it and defend it.
- China’s national identity cannot come from pure ethnicity or culture (too diverse),
so come from shared values/patterns of behavior.
- E.g. values of family (patriarchal and patrilineal importance) and religion
(popularly mirrors bureaucracy, identified in two sorts of mystical rulers
that connect you through various levels straight to the emperor/god).
- Qing has a culture of accepted rituals and societal beliefs, but not necessarily the
national identity.
- Emphasis on building local communities that mirrors bigger social/political
patterns.
- Eventually the need for that pushed revolutionnaires to make the Republic.
- Wang Fuzhi points out the Manchus “otherness,” but is
suppressed until his writings are rediscovered and spread through
the opposition
- Liang Qichao represents reformists by advocating for civic duty in establishing a strong
nation, but based on the guidance of a strong leader.
- Establish a community and give them a common political goal to make a nation of
like-minded people.
, - He believed people were too privately focused and fragmented, rather than working
for the good of China (public efforts).
- Zhang Binglin promoted the enthnic divide that came with the revolution, drawing from texts
before the Qing dynasty. Believed cultural identity was racial identity.
- A hatred and ostracization of the Manchus, punishment for their sins as barbarians.
- Disagree with Confucian beliefs that ethnicity doesn't matter to being Chinese, so
attacked the texts to further his ideas.
- Racial identity tied into kinship and ancestry, all Han are traced back to the Yellow Emperor,
raising the stakes of the nation.
- Late Qing intellectuals built a national identity based on ethnicity, religion, blood, historical
and cultural concepts.
Revolutionary Currents by - 1911 - the fall of the Qing dynasty, replaced in 1912 by an unstable Republic.
Hershatter - Unorganized revolt in the Qing troops in Wuhan, several months of fighting before
the throne was completely abdicated.
- Pockets of violence and revolt lead to territories declaring themselves
Republic until Qing collapse.
- Women play an important role in the revolt.
- The Republic becomes military after Sun Yat-sen gives up as leader, and more
foreign intrusion mounts pressure. Widespread sharing of public opinions.
- The Republic is a failure, a need for more political action and cultural evolution.
- Women need a new place in Chinese society; either as educated housekeepers to raise a
proper generation or individual members of society.
- Status of women represents the success of China.
- New era of women’s actions, schooling, rejecting foot binding, having a say, etc.
- Japan became a prominent country with the Meiji Restoration, then the defeat of China in
1895. Shocking growth in a short period of time, so China becomes highly conscious of its
own evolution.
- Arguing “social Darwinism” (Yan Fu), reform starts then is squashed by Empress
Cixi.
- The Qing dynasty continued to lose power, so it introduced new policies which
included education for women.
- Kang Youwei - Liang’s teacher, more utopian ideas but less popular. Gender discrimination is
a worldwide problem and China will be successful when all division is gone and everyone is
equal.
- Liang Qichao - China is failing because women are uneducated, so they cannot educate their
children properly. Still super belittling of women’s contributions and history though. Being
subordinate makes them boring and bland, they have never contributed economically. Very
popular opinion until the 1920s.
- Alicia Little - British novelist who wrote about footbinding practices in China, making many
observations. It isn’t to restrict women’s labour, it is considered barbarous by some male
elites. Frames the practice as child abuse, describes it scientifically as horrendous and
barbaric. She founded a society to get rid of the practice, writes to officials and elites, tours
and speaks out against the practice. Chinese men share the will to get rid of the practice and
it spreads quickly throughout China through all women. Fear and concern that footbinding is
limiting society and will destroy China, even supported by Qing eventually. Foot Binding
still continued to be disorganized and was approached to intimidate, not encourage in some
places.
- Xue Shaohui - Replying to Liang’s writing, stated that women are not ignorant and have a
deep love for their nation. Women should be educated because they can improve their family
for the nation. Wrote a book highlighting foreign women's abilities and accomplishments in a
romantic way. Campaigned to open schools for girls, eventually (after some pushback)
agreed to by the Qing dynasty with strict rules and roles. Private funded schools actually
, taught important information and allowed women less rigidity. Still fears over how a woman
should act, dress and learn. Debate shifts from if they should be taught to what they should
be taught and how they should use it. Exercise, home studies, knowledge all play into social
darwinism. Girls’ schools expand and become normalized, teaching expands and reaches
closer to equal learning.
- Contrasted in the media about women, both strong and weak. Both submissive and
dominant, beauty-obsessed and work obsessed.
- He-Yin Zhen - Radical feminist who believed female suppression stemmed from global
capitalism and could not be rectified with Chinese nationalism.
- Anti-Manchus was important, but would not fix the problem. Only destroying the
state and capital would.
- Critical of feminist motivations, especially in men, sought to abolish private
property and gender entirely. Eventually her ideas were adopted into Chinese
Marxism.
- Qiu Jin - Well educated woman who escaped to Tokyo, wrote essays criticizing feminine
suppression (e.g. Education, foot binding, etc) and promoting anti-Manchu sentiment. Also
formed societies for education, public speaking and promoting exercise. Joined a military
group while still writing, planned resistance, called for revolution.
- Eventually captured and beheaded for her anti-government actions, then becomes
legendary after death. Death and subsequent mourning is politicized.
- Very modern feminist, but traditonal nationalist tht made her popular throughout
20th century after her death.
- Tang Qunying - In the Republic formation, Sun reneggs on his agreement for women’s right
to vote in favour of conservative support. Tang comes in with a fellow feminist, slaps a
commander and denounces the sexism of what they plan, with other members protesting. The
exclusion continued though. She had a long history in the revolution and suffrage as well,
even storming into the legislature many times before and being on the front lines.
- The rest of her life was similarly full of protest, sometimes violence, working for
the suffrage. A martyr in her persecution from the government and a hero in the
eyes of feminists.
New Rules for Destroying - Uses examples on how “new rules” in destroying a country are created by Europeans.
Countries by Liang Qichao Identifies with and points out other countries and their failings.
- Egypts large debt to Europeans left them vulnerable to takeover.
- Poland relied on foreign forces to squash internal conflict.
- India’s allowance of foreign markets to take over and reduce their homeland’s
trading.
- Boers are more successful at resisting British intrusion, but it still results in a war
because they allowed some influences early on.
- Philippine relief on the US to defeat the Spanish, leaving them vulnerable after the
revolution occurred.
- Countries lost under the new rules will not comeback
- Do not borrow, do not ask for foreign help, Chinese will soon be the slaves of
slaves. Must reject open door policies and foreign intrusions, as it will divide the
country.
On Revolution by Zou Rong - Justifies the revolution against the Manchus because they forcibly took over China, justifies
violence as revenge and points to the barbarism of the past.
- China is Han, nationalism centers around ethnicity, and reclaim China by any means
necessary. Obligation to your country is equal through all people, protection of the people
under the nation. Revolution should always be an option to the public that feels wronged.
- Laws and practices of the republic based on American ideals.
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