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Summary of sociology for GMD class
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Summary Exam Sociology of Migration and DiversityWeek 1: Introduction to the sociology of migration.
The 4 main problems within sociology:
Social cohesions
Rationalization/modernization
Social inequality
Social identities
Social cohesions. The model of Durkheim. (Don’t know if I got this correctly).
Social cohesion (arises when bonds link members of a social group to one another and to the group as a whole) is
due to:
Peace and violence. During violence/war, there is more social cohesion because it forms bonds of us
versus them.
Attachment and isolation. Being attached to people leads to more social cohesion than isolation
(obviously). Isolation leads to egoistic suicide.
Social cohesions. The model of De Jong-Gierveld & Dykstra.
Social cohesion is due to:
Attachment and isolation. Attachment: living with or without a partner? Is there a network of support?
Isolation: feelings of loneliness?
Rationalization. The model of Weber.
In sociology, rationalization is the replacement of traditions, values, and emotions as motivators for behavior in
society with concepts based on rationality and reason.
The rationalization process is due to:
Moving from a traditional to a capitalist economy
The rise of science
The bureaucratization of the state
Rationalization: The model of Elias and De Swaan.
Rationalization processes are, according to them, due to:
The civilizing process (The civilisation process that Elias describes results in a profound change in
human behaviour. It leads to the construction of the modern state and transition of man from the warrior
of the Middle Ages to the civil man of the end of the 19th c.)
Processes of collectivization. Examples: public defense (lawyers for the people) and police, municipal
waterworks and sewerage, compulsory state-funded schooling, general old-age insurance.
Social inequality: The model of Marx.
The class struggle (the political tension and economic hostility/opposition that exists in society consequent
to socio-economic competition among the social classes) is due to:
, Class structure: In Marxist theory, the capitalist stage of production consists of two main classes:
the bourgeoisie, the capitalists who own the means of production, and the much larger proletariat (or
'working class') who must sell their own labour power. This is the fundamental economic structure of
work and property, a state of inequality that is normalised and reproduced through cultural ideology.
Class consciousness: In political theory and particularly Marxism, class consciousness is the set of
beliefs that a person holds regarding their social class or economic rank in society, the structure of
their class, and their class interests. According to Karl Marx, it is an awareness that is key to sparking a
revolution.
Social inequality: The Leyden School model.
Social stratification (refers to society’s categorization of its people into groups based
on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, gender, occupation, and social status, or
derived power (social and political) is due to:
The size of strata (how big the groups of people in society are whom are similar in education, income,
social status).
The openness of strata: how’s the father-son occupational mobility? (Is it possible within families to
move from one stratum to another), are socially mixed marriages possible?
Social identity:
The looking glass self-theory: how various others see you differs. Also from how you see yourself.
The 4 main theoretical paradigms in sociology:
Functionalism: macro, consensus, equilibrium (evenwicht)
Conflict theory: macro, struggle, change
Rational choice: micro, homo economicus, equilibrium
Symbolic interactionism: micro, homo sociologicus
Functionalism:
Is a framework for building theory that envisages society as a complex system whose parts work
together to promote solidarity and stability. It is guided by social structure, which means relatively
stable patterns of social behaviour.
This perspective leads us to understand social structure in terms of its social functions or
consequences for the operation of society.
Macro-level orientation: a focus on broad social structures that characterize society as a whole
Important authors/contributors to this theory:
Auguste Comte. Sought to promote social integration during a time of tumultuous change.
Emile Durkheim: saw societies as changing from based on great similarities to one characterised
by a rapid growth of division of labour. Called this increased differentiation a shift from a
mechanical society to an organic society, characterized by a breakdown of integration and
ultimately leading to anomie; a state of normlessness. Argued that the new groups [guilds] could
create a new sense of community and belonging.
Herbert Spencer. Introduced social Darwinism. Argued that the human body and society had
much in common: where the skeleton, organs, muscles etc. are interdependent and work together
for the survival of the entire organism, this is the same way for society. Various social structures
are interdependent, working to preserve society. Thus, this is very functionalist. The passing of
, time witnesses the ‘survival of the fittest’, the most intelligent, ambitious and productive people
will inevitably win out in society.
Talcott Parsons: treated society as a system, identifying basic tasks all societies must perform to
survive. Without societies being able to adapt, achieve their goals, maintain themselves and have
members who are well socialised into this order, societies might begin to break down.
Robert Merton: expanded our understanding of the concept of social functions in new ways.
Argued that the consequences of any social pattern are likely to differ for various members of a
society; whereas for example conventional families are crucial for the development of children,
they confer privileges on men while limiting the opportunities of women. Furthermore, social
structures have more functions than one. Distinguished between manifest functions (the
recognized and intended consequences of a social pattern) and latent functions (consequences that
are largely unrecognized and unintended). Example: manifest function of higher education is to
provide people with information and skill to perform jobs effectively. Latent function of this is that
university is a place for potential partners to meet, keeping higher socioeconomic classes together.
Criticism: by emphasizing social integration, functionalism tends to gloss over inequality based on
social class, race, ethnicity and gender.
Conflict perspective:
Is a framework for building theory that envisages society as an arena of inequality that generates
conflict and change. It highlights not solidarity but division based on inequality, the ongoing conflict
between dominant and disadvantaged categories of people (rich vs. poor, white vs. black, men vs.
women). It investigates how factors such as social class, race, ethnicity, sex and age are linked to the
unequal distribution of money, power and education, social prestige. (Voorloper van intersectionaliteit?
And the opposite of social darwinism). This because social structures seem to benefit some people
while depriving others (as opposed to integration of society as a whole). Central to this theory are
power relations.
It developed rapidly during the 1960s and 70s
Macro-level orientation: a focus on broad social structures that characterize society as a whole
Important authors/contributors to this theory:
Karl Marx. His goal was to not just understand society but reduce social inequality. Saw the
class struggle/conflict between groups based on inequality as the hall marker for histories
everywhere.
Criticism: it glosses over how shared values or interdependence generate unity among members of
a society. Furthermore: because it pursues a political goal, it has less/no social objectivity.
Criticism on both functionalism and conflict perspective:
It envisages society in very broad terms, as a whole, orderly and stable. Making society a thing in
itself, describing our lives as a composite of family, social class and so on. How can we assume that
society has a natural order, when social patterns vary from place to place and over time?
Rational choice/social action perspective:
By contrast to functionalism/conflict approach, rational choice/action theory starts with the ways in
which people or actors orientate themselves to each other and how they do so on the basis of
meanings.
Micro-level orientation: focus on social interaction in specific situation.
, It adopts a methodological individualist position and attempts to explain all social phenomena in
terms of the rational calculations made by the self-interested individuals. It’s heavily modelled on
economic action: actions are motivated by the rewards. The costs of actions and the profits of them are
central.
In short: it’s a micro-theory that focuses on how actors assemble social meanings.
Important authors/contributors to this theory:
Max Weber. Saw societies as becoming increasingly dominated by rational thought.
Emphasized the need to understand a setting from the point of view of the people in it. Stressed
how human meanings and action shape society. Thought that ideas, beliefs and values have
transforming power and saw the modern society as the product of a new way of thinking (not just
of technology and capitalism). His philosophy was thus more abstract, it contrasts with Marx’
focus on (material) production and capital. Weber contrasted social patterns in different times and
places. To sharpen his contrasts he relied on ‘’the ideal type’’. Closely tied to Weber is the
following theoretical framework:
Criticism: by focusing on day-to-day interactions, theorists can obscure [in het duister houden]
larger social structures. Highlighting what is unique in each social scene risks overlooking the
widespread effects of our culture, as well as factors such as class, gender and race. Furthermore:
how do you explain collective action, where the interests of not necessarily everyone are involved?
For a collective goal, let’s say? Rational choice theory cannot explain the origins of social norms,
altruism, reciprocity and trust.
Symbolic interactionism:
A theoretical framework that envisages society as the product of everyday interactions of people
doing things together.
Influential to this theory was George Herbert Mead. He looked at how we assemble our sense of self
over time, based on social experiences.
Theory leads to careful observation of how people interact.
Article of Macionis and Plummer:
Two of sociologies founders, Auguste Comte and Karl Marx made sense of the emerging modern
society in strikingly different ways. Differences still exist today. Whereas some sociologists highlight
how societies stay the same, others focus on patterns of change. Some focus on what brings people
together (solidarity, cohesion), others on how society divides people (inequality, class struggle, race,
gender etc.)
Despite the differences, there are three major theoretical ways of thinking about society called the
classical perspective which are discussed. Functionalism, conflict theory/approach and rational
choice/social action perspective.
Article of John Scott:
Is about rational choice theory. See above.
Article of Burawoy:
Is focused on public sociology in order to engage with non-academic audiences.
He distinguishes an antagonistic [hostile] interdependence between four types of knowledge:
professional, critical, policy and public. Although these types can reinforce one another, it is often the
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