A summary of all the obligatory articles of lecture 1 till 5.
1. Motor programming approach
2. Common coding approach
3. Neurological approach
4. Ecological approach
5. Dynamical system approach
Lecture 1
Maximizing performance feedback effectiveness through videotape
replay and a self – controlled learning environment – Janelle et al
- Specifically, it appears that feedback is a means to guide performers actions. In many studies,
increasing the absolute and relative amounts of feedback increases performance during the
acquisition period of learning. In contrast, when guidance was withdrawn (in the no feedback
retention phase of assessment), performance tended to decrease in groups receiving relatively larger
amounts of feedback as compared to those receiving less. It has been suggested that this indicates a
decrement in learning due to over-reliance on the guiding properties of the feedback.
- KR = knowledge of results = in reference to how well the performer reached the performance goal.
- KP = knowledge of performance = information regarding a particular movement. Feedback directed
toward the actual kinematic used.
- transitional information = information that constructs the learner how to change in the next
attempt.
- Zimmerman (1994) defined self-regulation as "the degree that individuals are metacognitively,
motivationally, and behaviorally active participants in their own learning process" . Participants who
use self-generated and self-regulated cognitive behavioral strategies have performance
improvements.
- Self-regulation strategies contribute to the perception of self-control, which had been shown to
enhance learning through deeper information processing.
- Many results support the notion that a self-controlled schedule of feedback can be effective and
they suggest KP in addition to KR however, KP is complex because of many DF.
- Aim: implement many strategies known to enhance effectiveness and asses the validity of a self-
controlled feedback environment as a means of interaction between teacher and learner. They want
to examine whether a self-controlled environment (schedule is determined by learner) would
provide better delivering feedback than a summary KP schedule.
- Method: participants hat to throw a standard tennis ball to the target with the nondominant hand.
The following groups where made:
KR only no augmented information related to throwing
Summary KP received KP after every five trials.
Self-controlled KP received KP whenever the asked.
Yoked control yoked control based on the schedules generated in the self-group. The
group is included to make sure that potential differences for self-regulated feedback are not
due to the amount of feedback, but rather on the opportunity to determine oneself when to
ask for feedback. Each participant of YOKE is coupled with self and receives the same
feedback schedule. Difference is that SELF determine when they get feedback, while YOKE
don’t have any control.
Examples of KP:
‘Focus on the initial position of the body’ or ‘Focus on the hips during the throwing phase’.
- The guidance hypothesis forwarded by Schmidt and his colleagues suggests that increased
frequency of feedback helps to guide the participant to the correct movement during the acquisition
period but may lead to a dependence on feedback.
- The effectiveness of the relatively small amount of KP received by the self-controlled group suggests
that even 20% may not be necessary. By giving participants control over learning,
it appears that a lower rate of feedback delivery is acceptable and even advantageous. Thus, when
delivering instruction on a rigid schedule, 20-50% may be the ideal relative percentage to deliver.
- It appears that those in the self-controlled environment processed information more efficiently and
were able to retain information more effectively than those who were given a fixed schedule of
feedback deliver, this may be due deeper information processing.
,- During retention, the SELF- group retained a higher level of throwing form and accuracy in
comparison to the other groups. Results suggest that when given the opportunity to control the
feedback environment, learners require relatively less feedback to acquire skills and retain those
skills at a level equivalent to or surpassing those who are given more feedback but receive it
passively.
a level equivalent to or surpassing those who are given mom feedback but receive it passively.
- Conclusion: providing KP in addition to KR appears to be more effective than simply providing KR
and the more ideal form of feedback to convey in a self-controlled situation. The SELF group
outperformed all other groups during retention, so self-controlled feedback led to the largest
performance gains.
Motor control and learning – Schmidt & Lee
- this part is about why schema learning is better under random-practice as compared to blocked-
practice schedules.
- blocked practice involves practicing all N trials on one task before any practice begun on another
task. So if one has several tasks, then practice is scheduled in blocks. All N trials are completed before
beginning the next task.
- random practice involves the same number of tasks and trials as blocked, however the schedule can
look like ACB BCA etc.
- contextual interference = the interference effects in performance and learning that arise from
practicing one task in the context of other task. High contextual interference (random) practice result
in enhanced learning relative to low interference (blocked).
- Drawback with completely random schedule is that constantly switching from one task to another
may be rather difficult therefor randomized blocks = subject would practice one task for two or
three trials, then randomly switch to another task and practice this for two or three trials.
- hypotheses to explain the differences between random and blocked effects:
1. Random practice forces the learning into more elaborative and distinctive conceptual processing of
the tasks to be learned. Random practice requires more comparative analyses of the
movements/actions that constitute the task easier to remember and more meaningful
2. Forgetting and reconstruction = in blocked practice the underlying representation remains
available in working memory, in random practice the representation has to be re-created/
reconstructed before every trial the learning becomes more proficient in problem solving for a
required representation.
- Larry Jacoby and the spacing effect = ‘forgetting helps remembering’ if the information is
remembered well, then the material to be studied will not be fully processed. If the information has
been forgotten, the material will be more processed again.
- mental practice effects = mentally practicing a skill.
- theories of motor learning:
1. closed- loop theory = on slow linear-positioning task. Principles of performance and learning that
applied in these movements are the same as for any other kind of movement.
Perceptual trace = movements are made by comparing the ongoing feedback from the limbs
to a reference of error correction that is learned during practice = reference for correction
and memory of correct feedback from previous movements.
By making a positioning movement, inherent feedback is produced that represents the
particular locations of the limb in space leave a trace in CNS.
With repeated movement closer to the target over trials.
Because with KR the learner is responding close to the target after a few trials, each trial
provide feedback that correct movement. This is important for building reference of
correction. KR does not produce learning directly, is creates a situation that actual learning
mechanisms can operate.
, The collection of traces (perceptual trace) comes to represent the feedback qualities of the
correct movement.
Because the perceptual trace is stronger with each KR trial, the error decrease with practice
and the perceptual trace become more stronger and accurate.
Adams realized that in order for the system to have capacity two detect error, two memory
states must be present, one to produce action and one to evaluate. If this would be one
state, then the programmed movement and the expected feedback will never be discrepant.
In Adams theory though, the perceptual trace represents the correct movement and the
movement is selected and initiated by the memory trace = modest program that selects and
initiates a movement. After initiation, the perceptual trace takes over the control of the
movement.
According to Adams: errors are harmful to learning. It provides incorrect feedback that will
be stored in the perceptual trace and thus be degraded important to repeatedly practice
the same movement without error. Guidance based on KR is therefore important because it
prevents errors.
Limitations:
Subjective reinforcement = self-generated error signal, based on comparing feedback against
the reference of correctness. This provides a mechanism to perform successfully without KR
requires strong reference of correctness. However, this can only be used in later stages of
learning.
The mechanism for control of a movement is not just only feedback, also sensory feedback is
possible and can improve with practice (showed in animal studies).
Variability of practice = because the perceptual trace is the feedback representation of the
correct action, making movement different should not increase the perceptual trace
strength.
Schmidt’s concern = the closed-loop theory did insufficiently incorporate open-loop
processes, such as necessary for fast ballistic movement.
2. Schema theory = based on our knowledge about motor control and theory from Adams, it uses
these concepts in conjunction with ideas about learning processes to explain the learning of rapid
and slow movements.
There are two states of memory:
Recall memory = responsible for the production of movement. It sets the parameters for a
specific movement. This has no important role in slow movement, because no post-
movement subjective reinforcement exist in slow movement.
Recognition memory = movement evaluation. It predict the sensory consequences for the
planned movement.
After a movement is made with generalized motor program (= provides (is a memory of) the
invariant characteristics (timing) of a class of movement before the production of one
individual movement, specific parameter (duration) must be set to execute the movement
given the requirement of the task.) four types of information are stored:
1. the initial condition before the movement.
2. the parameters assigned to the GMP.
3. the outcome of the movement in the environment (KR).
4. the sensory consequences.
The relationship between 1,2,3 = recall schema the specific parameter setting or response
specification for the upcoming movement.
The relationship between 1,3,4 = recognition schema the expected sensory consequences
for the upcoming movement.
The theory says that we learn skills by learning rules about the functioning of our bodies
forming relationships between how our muscles are activated and how those actions feel.
The theory also says that there are positive benefits from the production of movements
whether they are correct or not. Because the schema is based on rules on the relationship
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