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Summary Leadership and Cooperation Minor Part. 1
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WARNING/DISCLAIMERThis summary is made by a student. This student is not responsible for your grades. This summary is
here to provide the main message from the course.
Some tips: go to the workgroups, attend the lectures and read the book.
This summary is a combination of lecture notes and information from the book and some from
workgroups.
Lecture notes are mostly provided in the color blue, notes from the book black and some additional
information from workgroups are provided in green. Other things in red are important but so are all
the things in bold text. You’ll get used to the format while reading the summary. :)
Please like/dislike, comment on your experience with using these notes.
Thank you and Success!
Ch. 1 The Nature of Leadership 2
Ch. 2 Leadership Behavior 4
Ch. 3 Leadership Situation and Adaptive Leadership 6
Ch. 7 Leader Traits and Skills 10
Ch. 8 Charismatic and Transformational Leadership 15
Ch. 10 Dyadic Relations and Followers 22
Ch. 9 Values-Based and Ethical Leadership 27
Ch. 6 Power and Influence Tactics 34
Ch. 11 Leadership in Teams and Decision Groups 42
Ch. 13 Cross-Cultural Leadership and Diversity 48
Ch. 12 Strategic Leadership in Organizations 53
Ch. 14 Developing Leadership Skills 59
, Leadership and Cooperation Pre-Minor Period 5 Year 2 Bachelor Psychology
Leadership in Organizations
Ch. 1 The Nature of Leadership
Different ways leadership has been defined
Most definitions of leadership imply that intentional influence is used on other people to arrange
activities and people in a group or organization. Some researchers define leadership as a specialized
role (formal role versus natural decision between members) that occurs in groups. Other researchers
define leadership as a shared influence process which implies that leadership tasks can be done by
different people with influence that interact with each other.
The type of influence (outcomes(compliance vs enthusiasm), means (punishment)) a person has, is
also a factor to define leadership with. Some theorists view influence as something that results in
people to follow a leader. Others view influence as a part of leadership in terms of purpose (only
positive intentions or also self-serving goals?) and outcome or view reason and emotions as a basis for
influence. These forms of influence shouldn’t be excluded from each other because leadership
includes many types of influence in the process of leadership.
Influence can be direct or indirect (direct influence on followers: face-to-face, emails, interviews etc
indirect: no direct interactions, cascading/trickle down instructions, shaping formal programs, shaping
organizational culture) based on (in)direct interaction a leader has with people but these forms of
influence can coexist.
Leadership or management? Leadership can be viewed as a managerial role. (No equivalence, how
much overlap? Some people make a clear distinction and others do not...)
The book’s definition of leadership:
Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to
be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to
accomplish shared objectives.
Leadership can be considered in very everyday terms rather than as a grant even
Why do we have leaders: evolutionary, chaos without a leader, structure
Fitness benefits of individuals or groups with leaders should be > leaderless groups
Group living during evolution
- Humans lived in small groups, needed each other for survival (predators, finding food,
settling within group conflicts)
Leadership in humans: older males are preferred, or younger men in some cases
Leadership in other animals: apes, elephants, zebra's keeping watch over the rest to not be a subject
for prey
Evolutionary origins of leadership:
Collective action problems: aligned interest, competing interest
Major types of leadership theories that have been studied
Often good leadership is determined by the leader’s effectiveness. There are different kinds of
leadership effectiveness indicators, criteria of leadership. The first one is the extent to which the
performance (high group performance, goal attainment) is enhanced and the attainment of goals is
facilitated. Followers' (follower satisfaction: liking, respect, turnover, absenteeism, CPWB) attitudes
and perceptions of a leader are also indicators of a leader’s effectiveness. Effective leadership can also
be indicated by the quality group processes (contribution of a leader to the team. group cohesiveness,
conflict resolution, role specialization) the leader creates (viewed by followers/observers). The final
indicator is the extent to which a person has a successful career as a leader (number and speed of
promotions, tenure duration --> period of time when someone holds a job/quits early, complexity of
leadership effectiveness, Trade-offs between criteria are possible).
Rugina (B Psychology student VU Amsterdam)
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, Leadership and Cooperation Pre-Minor Period 5 Year 2 Bachelor Psychology
Results of influence can be immediate or delayed outcomes. Immediate outcomes → willingness of
the followers to do what the leader asks. Delayed outcomes → extent to which followers perform the
task well. → long-term effect are more ambiguous (third variables/changing contexts)
How to go forward: select appropriate criteria, be cognizant (aware) of limitations (time, budget,
variables), different stakeholders may value different indicators
Different ways leadership effectiveness is determined
Research methods that are used to determine leadership effectiveness: surveys, observation, assessing
effects of leadership behavior, examining social networks within organizations.
Important factors in understanding leadership effectiveness:
1. Characteristics of leaders
2. Characteristics of followers
3. Characteristics of the situation
Approaches that are used to explain leadership characteristics
- Trait Approach: attributes of a leader are essential “natural leader”
- Behavior Approach: actions managers take, observed behavior in relation to outcomes
- Power-Influence Approach: the amount and type of power a leader possesses and how
power is exercised
- Situational Approach: focusses on the context that can determine outcomes of leadership
effectiveness
- Values-Based Approach: focus on deeply held leader values that appeal to and influence
followers
Aspects of leadership that have been studied the most
Levels of conceptualization to describe a leader’s effectiveness
- Intra-individual Processes: individual traits, skills and values,
leadership attributes
- Dyadic Theories: focus on a 2-person relationship between leader
and usually a subordinate e.g. LMX (leader-member exchange).
Explained by the ability of the leader to cause the subordinate to
behave in a way that is beneficial to the company
- Group-Level Theories: focus on the collective processes that
determine team performance
- Organizational Level Theories: leadership is viewed as a process that occurs in a larger “open
system” in which groups are subsystems. Adaptation to the environment and acquisition of
necessary resources determines the survival and prosperity of the organization
Multi-level Theories → constructs of more than one level of explanation (usually not parsimonious
and difficult to assess than single-level theories, but it is a way to overcome single-level theorie’s
limitations) multiple variables play a role e.g. mediating / moderating variable
Other distinctions of leadership theories
- Leader-Centered or Follower-Centered Theory: focus either on leader or followers
characteristics
- Descriptive or Prescriptive Theory: descriptive theories explain leadership processes,
describe the typical activities of leaders, and explain why certain behaviors occur in particular
situations. Prescriptive theories specify what leaders must do to become effective, and they
identify any necessary conditions for using a particular type of behavior effectively
These two theories can coexist but they’re not always consistent with each other e.g. certain
behavior doesn’t have to be effective
- Universal or Contingency Theory: a universal theory is either descriptive or prescriptive and
describes factors of leadership that can be applied in any situation. Contingency theories can
Rugina (B Psychology student VU Amsterdam)
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, Leadership and Cooperation Pre-Minor Period 5 Year 2 Bachelor Psychology
also be descriptive or prescriptive and are only applicable in some situations → distinction
between these two is a matter of degree in which these theories can be used
overall form lecture 1: How leadership is defined and how to determa........
A useful working definition of leadership aligns with evolutionary logic regarding leadership and can
be formulated as follows → see the definition of leadership of the book
many taxonomies of leadership: there are many leadership behaviors
Ch. 2 Leadership Behavior
Different ways leader behavior has been described and examined
Classifications of leadership behavior are extremely diverse. The categories derived from observations
to organize leadership behavior do not exist in an objective sense. There is no correct leader behavior.
Different classifications of leadership behavior facilitate different reseachtopics and can be e.g. used
at different levels of abstraction and generality. Classifications of leadership behavior differ in the
method used to develop them. →
Qualitative assessments: biography, interviews, case study
Surveys: self-reports, follower reports, 360 assessments
Archival data: elections, historical data
Experiments
Novel methods: observations (games, boardroom coaching), neuroscience
Major types of leader behavior in leadership theory and research
- Task-Oriented and Relations-Oriented Behavior (two broad behaviors): Task-oriented
behavior is primarily concerned with accomplishing the task in an efficient and reliable way.
Relationship-oriented behavior is primarily concerned with increasing mutual trust,
cooperation, job satisfaction, and identification with the team or organization.
Task-oriented Relations-oriented
initiating structure consideration
concern of production concern for people
instrumental leadership supportive leadership
goal emphasis; work supportive leadership
facilitation interaction facilitation
performance behavior maintenance behavior
- Change-Oriented Behavior: behavior concerned with encouraging and facilitating change &
innovation
- Empowering and Participative Leadership: decision making procedures leaders use to
involve others (subordinates/team members) in decisions about the work.
- Transformational Leadership: visionary and inspirational leadership, also includes some
behaviors from task-oriented, change-oriented and other types of leadership behavior
- External Leadership Behaviors: behavior by which a leader seeks interaction with other
people in the organization rather than only subordinates. External behavior has three broad
categories: networking (building and maintaining relationships with people), external
Rugina (B Psychology student VU Amsterdam)
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