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Summary How to write (a paper) in English
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HOW TO WRITE (A PAPER) IN ENGLISHLessons by Andy Baker
,1. Punctuation in English.................................................................................................................................................3
1.1. Commas................................................................................................................................................................3
1.2. Semicolons............................................................................................................................................................6
1.3. Colons...................................................................................................................................................................7
1.4. Apostrophes.........................................................................................................................................................7
2. Sentence Structure......................................................................................................................................................8
2.1. Sentence Fragments.............................................................................................................................................8
2.2. Comma Splices....................................................................................................................................................10
2.3. Run-on Sentences...............................................................................................................................................10
2.4. Active vs. Passive................................................................................................................................................11
3. Formal/ Academic Tone.............................................................................................................................................12
3.1. What Detracts, What Contributes......................................................................................................................12
3.2. When to Use ‘That’ and When It Can Be Left Out...............................................................................................14
3.3. And, But and So..................................................................................................................................................14
3.4. Writing Concisely................................................................................................................................................16
3.5. Steps Before You Turn Your Paper in..................................................................................................................17
4. Common Dutch Mistakes..........................................................................................................................................18
4.1. False Friends.......................................................................................................................................................18
4.2. Verb tenses.........................................................................................................................................................21
4.3. The Rest..............................................................................................................................................................23
5. The Introduction........................................................................................................................................................25
5.1. The job of the introduction.................................................................................................................................25
5.2. The steps............................................................................................................................................................25
6. The Results Section...................................................................................................................................................27
6.1. The Steps............................................................................................................................................................27
7. The Discussion...........................................................................................................................................................29
8. The Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................................32
,1. PUNCTUATION IN ENGLISH
1.1. COMMAS
Four Common Myths about Commas
1. Long sentences need a comma. A really long sentence may be perfectly correct without commas. The length
of a sentence does not determine whether you need a comma.
2. You should add a comma wherever you pause. Where you pause or breathe in a sentence does not indicate
where a comma belongs. Different readers pause or breathe in different places.
3. Commas are used the same way in English as in Dutch. There are many similarities, but some hard and
fast rules of Dutch commas usage are not useful when writing in English. You should know both.
4. Commas are so mysterious that it is impossible to figure out where they belong. Some rules are flexible,
but most of the time, commas belong in very predictable places. You can learn to identify many of those
places using the tips in this handout.
There are basically seven ways to use commas in English
1. Introductory bits
2. FANBOYS
3. The Comma Splice
4. FANBOY fakers
5. X, Y, and Z
6. Describers
7. Interrupters
But first… What are the components of a sentence?
My dog likes to take walks.
subject verb the rest
My dog likes when we take walks.
My dog likes ice cream.
1.1.1. INTRODUCTORY BITS
Small (One word)
Generally, visitors from out of town are welcome.
Moreover, they often arrive bearing gifts!
Medium (Often two- to four-word prepositional phrases or brief -ing or -ed phrases)
In fact, my parents visited recently and were quite generous.
Throughout their visit, my father insisted on paying at restaurants.
Frankly speaking, I found it quite generous and it took pressure off me.
Until that time, When one uses that, Although we may disagree, etc.
What are prepositions?
Small words that typically express a spatial, temporal, or other relationship
in, on, by, to, since, although, through, until, with, when, across, above, after, etc.
When I read one of those in a paper, my eye automatically looks for a comma
,Large (More than four words)
If you find yourself in some kind of trouble during the weekend, call me.
As far as I am concerned, vegetarianism is overrated.
Where are the subject and verb?
1.1.2. FANBOYS
FANBOYS
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So
Examples
It’s a large house, so it will be easy to find.
It’s a large house, but it is haunted.
It’s a large house, yet they still need more room.
1.1.3. THE COMMA SPLICE
Comma splices are bad.
They are what happens when you don’t use a FANBOY.
For example:
She wore a lovely hat, she was going to a party
How do we fix that?
add a FANBOY
change the comma to a semicolon
make each clause a separate sentence
add a subordinator (a word like because, while, although, if, when since, etc.)
She wore a lovely hat, she was going to a party.
She wore a lovely hat, for she was going to a party.
She wore a lovely hat; she was going to a party.
She wore a lovely hat. She was going to a party.
She wore a lovely hat because she was going to a party.
,1.1.4. FANBOY FAKERS
Examples:
However, therefore, moreover, and words like this
How NOT to do it.
Basketball is my favorite sport, however table tennis is where I excel.
Basketball is my favorite sport, however, table tennis is where I excel.
Possible fixes:
Basketball is my favorite sport. However, table tennis is where I excel.
Basketball is my favorite sport; however, table tennis is where I excel.
1.1.5. X, Y, AND Z.
He is going to buy bananas, apples and oranges at the store.
He is going to buy bananas, apples, and oranges at the store.
BUT ALWAYS: A good student listens to his teachers without yawning, reads once in a while, and writes
papers before they are due.
Note: The comma in question here is called the Oxford comma (also the Harvard comma, the serial comma, or the
series comma).
1.1.6. DESCRIBERS
He was a bashful, dopey, sleepy man.
The young, stylish princess kissed the putrid, vile frog.
(The same as in Dutch)
1.1.7. INTERRUPTERS
Bob Mills, a sophomore from Raleigh, was the only North Carolina native at the Japanese festival in Cary.
Aaron thought becoming a writer, not an actor, would be the best career.
My chemistry book, which weighs about 50 kilos, has some really great examples.
To see if you need commas around an interrupter, try taking the interrupter out of the sentence completely. If the
sentence is still clear without the interrupter, then you probably need the commas.
Bob Mills, a sophomore from Raleigh, was the only North Carolina native at the Japanese festival in Cary.
Aaron thought becoming a writer, not an actor, would be the best career.
My chemistry book, which weighs about 50 kilos, has some really great examples.
,1.2. SEMICOLONS
There are three ways to use a semicolon:
1. To connect two independent clauses (complete sentences) that are closely related and could be thought of
as one thought.
2. Between items in a list if the items contain commas. (The super comma)
3. Between two independent clauses that are connected by conjunctive adverbs or transitional phrases.
1.2.1. TO CONNECT TWO INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
My sister loves to cook. She’s in the kitchen now.
My sister loves to cook, she’s in the kitchen now. That’s a comma splice.
My sister loves to cook; she’s in the kitchen now.
He’s a wonderful student; he always comes to class.
I enjoy all kinds of pastries; cookies are my favorite
1.2.2. THE SUPERCOMMA
There were four dinner guests: John, an architect, Chris, an actor, Tara, a dancer, and Valerie, a middle
school teacher.
There were four dinner guests: John, an architect; Chris, an actor; Tara, a dancer; and Valerie, a middle
school teacher.
Three of my favorite vacation spots are the following: Lisbon, Portugal; London, England; and New York, New
York.
1.2.3. BETWEEN TWO INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
You’ll need to call ahead and make reservations; otherwise, we might get to the restaurant and have to wait.
1.2.4. HERE’S HOW TO NOT USE SEMICOLONS
I have three hobbies; skating, reading and martial arts. Use a colon instead.
She works in my office; and she’s always late. Use a comma instead.
No one applied for the job; even though it was advertised extensively. Use a comma instead
,1.3. COLONS
The Colon is sort of like an equal sign
It looks like this :
It has two main functions
1. Introduces a list after a complete sentence
I have three favorite colors: blue, green and red.
My three favorite colors are: blue, green and red.
2. Goes between two complete sentences if the second summarizes the first (here’s where the equal sign comes
in)
Cynthia can't see the forest for the trees: that's her major problem.
Never forget this point: think before you speak.
I just want you to remember: two can play at that game.
Bonus way to use a colon
Quotes
This was first said by Shakespeare: "To thine own self be true."
The main character in the movie said: "Play hard. Work harder."
She went to great lengths to emphasize this: "Kindness never fades."
1.4. APOSTROPHES
There are two ways to use an apostrophe in English
1. Contractions
do + not = don’t
we + are = we’re
she + will = she’ll
will + not = won’t
Feel free to use contraction when you speak.
It makes you sound human and less robotic.
Don’t use them in academic writing.
It takes away from the formal tone you want.
2. Possessives Ways English does NOT use the apostrophe
John has a dog. Plurals:
It is John’s dog. cameras NOT camera’s
NOT: It is the dog of John. hobbies NOT hobby’s
Common mistake: John his dog.
It’s vs. Its
It’s - a contraction (it + is)
Its - possessive, like his or hers
Give the dog its bone
,2. SENTENCE STRUCTURE
2.1. SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
Some distinguishing features
1. It’s missing a subject Other examples:
Went to the store for more bananas. Be there at five.
Who did? Clean your room.
Complete these by tomorrow.
Exception (that’s not really an exception) Consider the red dress.
Go ask your mother. Wait for me.
(You) go ask your mother. Get out!
Imperative
2. It’s missing a verb or has the wrong verb form
The car my brother bought.
What happened with it? What did it do?
Watching fireworks.
What about it?
3. It’s a leftover phrase
We were in Florida. For the whole summer.
We were in Florida for the whole summer.
4. It’s an abandoned clause
When my mother married my father.
What happened when “my mother married my father?”
5. It is a misuse of “such as, for example, especially,” etc.
Such as, people who love Italian food.
It’s unclear what they mean. What about these people?
How do we fix them?
There are three basic fixes
1. Attach
2. Revise
3. Rewrite
,Attach the fragment to a nearby complete sentence
Incorrect: She took the train. To work that morning.
Correct: She took the train to work that morning.
Incorrect: If you get locked out. The spare key is under the planter.
Correct: If you get locked out, the spare key is under the planter.
Revise the fragment by adding whatever is missing – subject, verb, complete thought.
Incorrect: Enjoys a good pasta salad. Who does?
Correct: My grandmother enjoys a good pasta salad.
Incorrect: Mary to sing every Sunday. Missing a verb OR it’s the wrong verb form
Correct: Mary loves to sing every Sunday.
Correct: Mary sings every Sunday.
Correct: Mary is going to sing every Sunday.
Rewrite the fragment or the entire passage that contains the fragment.
Incorrect: Our new landlord was expected to make changes. Such as fixing the plumbing, installing a new
washer, and replacing the security gate. Has not done any of it yet and weeks have passed.
Correct: Our new landlord was expected to make changes, such as fixing the plumbing, installing a new
washer, and replacing the security gate lock. Weeks have passed, and he still has not done any of it yet.
To Review
A sentence needs a subject and a verb. It also needs to express a complete thought. If it doesn’t, it’s your job
to fix it.
Simple, complete sentences are a good idea.
, 2.2. COMMA SPLICES
Example:
Three studies provided evidence of a strong relationship between sleep disorders and memory loss,
however, other reports produced conflicting results.
Fix 1:
Make it into two sentences
Three studies provided evidence of a strong relationship between sleep disorders and memory loss.
However, other reports produced conflicting results.
Fix 2:
Change the first comma to a semicolon
Three studies provided evidence of a strong relationship between sleep disorders and memory loss;
however, other reports produced conflicting results.
Fix 3:
Use a comma and a FANBOY
Three studies provided evidence of a strong relationship between sleep disorders and memory loss, but
other reports produced conflicting results.
Example:
The incidence of varicella increased to 12,000 cases in 2000, half of those cases occurred in children.
Fix 4:
Revise one clause.
The incidence of varicella increased to 12,000 cases in 2000, half of them occurring in children.
2.3. RUN-ON SENTENCES
What is a Run-on Sentence?
More than one sentence joined together with no punctuation
Example:
I attended all of the lessons last period I also turned all of my papers in on time.
Possible fixes:
I attended all of the lessons last period. I also turned all of my papers in on time.
I attended all of the lessons last period; I also turned all of my papers in on time.
I attended all of the lessons last period, and I also turned all of my papers in on time.
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