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Samenvatting Antropologische thema's uit de hedendaagse filosofie

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Deze uitgebreide samenvatting bevat alle slides die dit academiejaar werden behandeld. De slides worden aangevuld met het boek. Heel het boek is verwerkt in de samenvatting, de zaken die op de slides staan, maar niet worden besproken in het boek, zijn aangevuld met notities van de les. Het is een...

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  • January 9, 2022
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  • 2021/2022
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Antropologische thema’s uit de hedendaagse Filosofie
Denken over lichamen


Inhoudsopgave

1. Wat is filosofie?......................................................................................................................................... 6

1.1 Drie aspecten: attitude, methodologie, domein.............................................................................................6
1.1.1 Attitude.....................................................................................................................................................6
1.1.2 Methodologie...........................................................................................................................................7
1.1.3 Domein.....................................................................................................................................................9
1.1.4 Wetenschap en Filosofie..........................................................................................................................9
1.1.5 Filosofie en vooruitgang?.........................................................................................................................9

1.2 Vier deeldomeinen........................................................................................................................................10
1.2.1 Wetenschapsfilosofie.............................................................................................................................11

1.3 Een zeer korte geschiedenis van de westerse filosofie.................................................................................11

1.4 Besluit............................................................................................................................................................12


2. Mechanisering en doelgerichtheid............................................................................................................ 13

2.1 De mechanisering van het wereldbeeld........................................................................................................13
2.1.1 Wetenschappelijke revolutie.................................................................................................................14
2.1.2 Doeloorzaken versus mechanische oorzaken........................................................................................15
2.1.3 Mechanisering........................................................................................................................................16

2.2 Kant en teleologie.........................................................................................................................................17

2.3 Darwin en het darwinisme............................................................................................................................19

2.4 Domheid en doelgerichtheid.........................................................................................................................22
2.4.1 William Paley – Natural Theology (1802)...............................................................................................22
2.4.2 Daniel Dennet: ‘Slimme ingenieur’ (1995).............................................................................................25

2.5 Functies en normen in de natuur..................................................................................................................26
2.5.1 Functies?.................................................................................................................................................26
2.5.2 Twee problemen....................................................................................................................................27

2.6 Besluit............................................................................................................................................................27


3. Lichaam en geest...................................................................................................................................... 29

3.1 Fysisch spul en geestesspul: Descartes’ dualisme.........................................................................................30

3.2 Dualisme na Descartes..................................................................................................................................32


1

, 3.3 De mens is een machine................................................................................................................................34

3.4 Van materialisme naar fysicalisme...............................................................................................................34
3.4.1 Eliminativistisch fysicalisme...................................................................................................................35
3.4.2 Reductionistisch fysicalisme...................................................................................................................36


4. Lijden en dood......................................................................................................................................... 39

4.1 Oplossingen voor de dood.............................................................................................................................39

4.2 Lijden is (g)een pretje....................................................................................................................................42
4.2.1 Lijden en zin............................................................................................................................................44
4.2.2 Lijden en genot.......................................................................................................................................44
4.2.3 Lijden en geluk........................................................................................................................................44

4.3 Is de dood een kwaad?..................................................................................................................................45
4.3.1 De dood als erg voor nabestaanden......................................................................................................45
4.3.2 De dood is onvoorstelbaar.....................................................................................................................46
4.3.3 De dood als afwezigheid........................................................................................................................46

4.4 Is onsterfelijkheid wenselijk?........................................................................................................................47
4.4.1 Probleem 1.............................................................................................................................................47
4.4.2 Probleem 2.............................................................................................................................................48
4.4.3 Kritiek.....................................................................................................................................................48


5. Wetenschap en pseudowetenschap......................................................................................................... 49

5.1 Het demarcatieprobleem..............................................................................................................................49
5.1.1 Belang.....................................................................................................................................................50

5.2 Drie problematische oplossingen..................................................................................................................51
5.2.1 Pseudowetenschap = onjuist.................................................................................................................51
5.2.2 Pseudowetenschap = observatie...........................................................................................................51
5.2.3 Pseudowetenschap = geen verifieerbaarheid........................................................................................52
5.2.4 Wiener Kreis (jaren ’20-’30)...................................................................................................................53

5.3 Karl Popper: zoeken naar weerlegging.........................................................................................................54
5.3.1 Pseudowetenschap = geen falsifieerbaarheid.......................................................................................54

5.4 Thomas Kuhn: paradigma’s en revoluties.....................................................................................................59
5.4.1 Paradigma’s en wissels...........................................................................................................................60
5.4.2 Vooruitgang?..........................................................................................................................................61
5.4.3 Demarcatiecriterium?............................................................................................................................61
5.4.4 Pseudowetenschap = niet probleemoplossend.....................................................................................62

5.5 Besluit............................................................................................................................................................63

2

,6. Wetenschappelijke kennis........................................................................................................................ 65

6.1 Wetenschappen en hun methoden...............................................................................................................65
6.1.1 Centrale wetenschap? Vroeger..............................................................................................................66
6.1.2 Centrale wetenschap? Vandaag.............................................................................................................67

6.2 Hume en Popper: zoeken naar oorzaken......................................................................................................67
6.2.1 Causaliteit...............................................................................................................................................68
6.2.2 Inductie...................................................................................................................................................69
6.2.3 Karl Popper.............................................................................................................................................70

6.3 Over theoretische observaties en geloof in theorie......................................................................................71
6.3.1 Theorie → observaties: theorie geladen observaties............................................................................72
6.3.2 Observatie → theorie: onder determinering van de theorie.................................................................73

6.4 Succes in de biomedische wetenschappen....................................................................................................75
6.4.1 Reële successen......................................................................................................................................75
6.4.2 Humoraal theorie...................................................................................................................................75

6.5 Toeval gebruiken om toeval uit te schakelen...............................................................................................77
6.5.1 Gedachte-experiment............................................................................................................................77
6.5.2 Tegen feitelijke opvatting causaliteit.....................................................................................................77
6.5.3 Randomized Controlled Trials (RCT’s)....................................................................................................78

6.6 Besluit............................................................................................................................................................79


7. Ziekte....................................................................................................................................................... 80

7.1 Ziekte en Gezondheid....................................................................................................................................80
7.1.1 Biomedische wetenschappen................................................................................................................80
7.1.2 Werkinstrumenten.................................................................................................................................80
7.1.3 Noodzakelijke en voldoende voorwaarden...........................................................................................81
7.1.4 Intuïties rond ziekten.............................................................................................................................81

7.2 Normativisme................................................................................................................................................82
7.2.1 Bepaling..................................................................................................................................................82
7.2.2 Voorbeelden...........................................................................................................................................82
7.2.3 Biologische norm?..................................................................................................................................82
7.2.4 Probleem................................................................................................................................................83

7.3 Naturalisme...................................................................................................................................................83
7.3.1 Bepaling..................................................................................................................................................83
7.3.2 Probleem................................................................................................................................................84

7.4 Hybridisme....................................................................................................................................................84


3

, 7.4.1 Bepaling..................................................................................................................................................84
7.4.2 Twee voorwaarden................................................................................................................................85
7.4.3 Voorbeeld...............................................................................................................................................85
7.4.4 Problemen..............................................................................................................................................85

7.5 Pluralisme......................................................................................................................................................87
7.5.1 Ludwig Wittgenstein...............................................................................................................................87
7.5.2 Bepaling..................................................................................................................................................87
7.5.3 Essentialisme..........................................................................................................................................88
7.5.4 Problemen..............................................................................................................................................88

7.6 Eliminativisme...............................................................................................................................................89
7.6.1 Bepaling..................................................................................................................................................89
7.6.2 Voorbeelden...........................................................................................................................................89
7.6.3 Problemen..............................................................................................................................................90


8. Medicalisering.......................................................................................................................................... 91

8.1 Medicaliseren en pathologiseren..................................................................................................................91
8.1.1 Vaststelling.............................................................................................................................................91
8.1.2 Definitie..................................................................................................................................................91
8.1.3 Ivan Illich – Medical Nemesis (1976)......................................................................................................91
8.1.4 Twee aspecten en twee activiteiten......................................................................................................94

8.2 Pathologiseren: oorzaken en gevolgen.........................................................................................................95
8.2.1 Pathologiseren.......................................................................................................................................95
8.2.2 Voordelen en nadelen............................................................................................................................96

8.3 De pathologisering van zwaarlijvigheid........................................................................................................98
8.3.1 Vaststelling.............................................................................................................................................98
8.3.2 Verzet.....................................................................................................................................................99
8.3.3 Argumenten...........................................................................................................................................99

8.4 Van zwaarlijvigheid tot obesitas: de genealogie........................................................................................101
8.4.1 Waarom dan ziekte?............................................................................................................................101
8.4.2 Ontstaansgeschiedenis.........................................................................................................................101

8.5 Besluit..........................................................................................................................................................102


9. Verbetering............................................................................................................................................ 103

9.1 Is verbetering immoreel?............................................................................................................................103
9.1.1 Verbeteringsdrang................................................................................................................................105
9.1.2 Onverantwoorde praktijken?...............................................................................................................105


4

, 9.2 De menselijke natuur en de drang naar verbetering..................................................................................109
9.2.1 Verbetering en prestatiedrang.............................................................................................................109
9.2.2 Menselijke cultuur................................................................................................................................109

9.3 Verschilt medische verbetering van medische therapie?...........................................................................110
9.3.1 Kritiek op technologie..........................................................................................................................110
9.3.2 Twee onderscheidingen.......................................................................................................................111
9.3.3 Drie tegenargumenten.........................................................................................................................113

9.4 Verbetering door genezing.........................................................................................................................113
9.4.1 Bijwerkingen.........................................................................................................................................113
9.4.2 Doctrine van Dubbel Effect..................................................................................................................114
9.4.3 Probleem..............................................................................................................................................115

9.5 Besluit..........................................................................................................................................................116
9.5.1 Verbetering en pathologisering...........................................................................................................116
9.5.2 Voorzichtige aanpak.............................................................................................................................116
9.5.3 Technologie neutraliteit.......................................................................................................................117


10. Handicap.............................................................................................................................................. 118

10.1 Ziekte en haar gevolgen............................................................................................................................118
10.1.1 Juiste woorden vinden.......................................................................................................................118
10.1.2 Nadelen van Ziekte.............................................................................................................................118
10.1.3 WHO...................................................................................................................................................119
10.1.4 ICIDH-Schema.....................................................................................................................................119
10.1.5 Kritiek.................................................................................................................................................121

10.2 Disability tussen geneeskunde en de maatschappij.................................................................................124
10.2.1 Aard en oorzaken...............................................................................................................................124
10.2.2 Kritiek.................................................................................................................................................125
10.2.3 Handicap als clusterconcept..............................................................................................................125

10.3 Disability en sociaalconstructivisme.........................................................................................................126
10.3.1 Handicap als sociale constructie........................................................................................................126

10.4 Beperkingen waarderen............................................................................................................................129
10.4.1 Mensen met een handicap.................................................................................................................129
10.4.2 Tegenintuïtief?...................................................................................................................................130

10.5 Besluit........................................................................................................................................................133
10.5.1 Emily Ladau – ‘The complexities of curing disabilities’ (2013)...........................................................133


Begrippenlijst Toledo................................................................................................................................. 133


5

, 1. Wat is filosofie?
Ambrose Bierce
- Filosofie = een stelsel van vele wegen die van nergens naar niets leiden
o Veel filosofen houden zich inderdaad bezig met onmogelijke vragen,
vragen waarop geen eensluidend en sluitend antwoord kan worden
gegeven.
o Het blijkt immers erg moeilijk te zijn een lijst van filosofische kenmerken
op de stellen die voorkomen bij ALLE filosofen en hun opvattingen, en
ENKEL bij filosofen en hun opvattingen.
- Verschillende betekenissen:
o Mening of denkwijze
o Levens- of wereldbeschouwing
o Studie van algemene beginselen
- Griekse philosophia
o Gr. Philein: houden van, verlangen naar
o Gr. Sophia: wijsheid, inzicht


G.W.F. Hegel:
“ De uil van Minerva begint haar vlucht pas bij het aanbreken van de avondschemering.”



1.1 Drie aspecten: attitude, methodologie, domein
1.1.1 Attitude
- Kritische denken
o In vele definities wordt de kritische kracht van de filosoof benadrukt, in die
mate zelfs dat filosofie wordt vereenzelvigd met kritisch denken.
 Maar kritiek is niet altijd het einddoel van de filosofie.
o Autoriteiten worden uitgedaagd door filosofen en hun uitspraken worden in
twijfel getrokken.
 Dat geldt niet enkel voor de autoriteit van personen, maar ook voor
de autoriteit van de eigen vermogens, zoals onze zintuigen en onze
cognitieve vermogens.
 René Descartes merkte op dat ons gezichtsvermogen ons
vaak bedriegt.
o Bijvoorbeeld: Müller-Lyer illusie
-




6

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