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Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 3
Chapter 2: Analytical framework ............................................................................................................ 7
Chapter 3: The promises and pitfalls of state intervention .................................................................. 10
Chapter 4: Welfare states: Affordability and perverse incentives ........................................................ 13
Chapter 5: Population growth while fertility drops .............................................................................. 14
Chapter 6: Migration and the multicultural society ............................................................................. 16
Chapter 7: Economic inequality ........................................................................................................... 17
2
, Chapter 1: Introduction
Societal problem: when a substantial group of citizens perceives a certain state of affairs as
problematic.
Social problem: a problem occurring in relations or interactions between people.
Social problems only become societal problems if they are shared by a large group of people and
leave their mark on society as a whole.
➔ Example: theft isn’t a societal problem in itself, but it can become one if it reduces social
trust across large swathes of society.
Public bads: societal problems. These stand in contrast to the public goods.
The true origin of societal problems does not generally lie in the intentions of individuals, but rather
in the aggregation of individual actions into society-level phenomena. The crucial aspect is that
individual actors do not take into account the effects of their behaviour (= externalities) on others.
The state was seen as an institution of power based on hierarchy and society was considered to be
an association of free people.
Montesquieu’s theory of the trias politica (the separation of powers): the administrative powers of
governments should be divided into three separate branches: executive, legislative and judicial.
➔ These three branches should be independent and thus balance each other in such a way that
none of them could over-rule the others.
It is not always evident whether a certain situation constitutes a societal problem and, if so, what
should be done about it.
Figure 1: how societal problems are recognized and bring about collective action
There is a collection of individual-level behaviours that give rise –
often unintendedly – to a certain society-level situation
This society-level situation is regarded as undesirable, being in
conflict with important values within society
A sufficiently large group of people consider the issue urgent and, as
a result, the issue penetrates the public agenda
An assessment is made whether government action is needed and
feasible, possibly leading to revised government policies or
alternative forms of collective action
Social media make it more easy to for individuals or small groups to elevate issues on the public
agenda. However, at the same time, resources and social status continue to play an important role.
Many social media posts that turn viral, for instance, only do so after a celebrity or opinion leader has
picked up and drawn attention to the original post.
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