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Topic 1 — IntroductionINTRODUCTION TO RELIGION
- In order to understand the philosophy religion, we need to first question what the concept of ‘religion’
means.
- In John Hicks’ discussion of the question, he highlights a number of possible definitions including
“human recognition of a super-human controlling power and especially of a personal God or Gods entitled
to obedience and worship.” Some definitions are interpretative (psychological definitions), and there are
other sociological definitions, naturalistic definitions, and even religious definitions of religion.
- The problem with these definitions is that they are all stipulative definitions, they prescribe rather
than describe conceptions about religion.
- Thus, for Hicks, religion does not have one, singular definition. Rather, it is an umbrella term used to
describe a series of different phenomena which display partial similarities and differences. There is
no single, defining characteristic which encompasses everything that is religion.
- The similarities between religion are a question of “degree within a widely spreading network of
resemblances and differences.”
- In spite of aforementioned analysis, Hick maintains that there is one characteristic of religions which
is fairly general (although not completely universal): that is, the idea of salvation.
- Idea of salvation is the idea of a transformation from imperfect/unsatisfactory/sinful/incomplete
condition to one of perfection and contentedness. There can be some exceptions to this such as traditional
African religions, for example, although exceptions are not wide/intense.
- Perhaps the provisional definition (with consideration for difficulty of finding a single definition) of
religion should be of “religion” as a phenomenon. Religion is:
- A kind of encounter which involves and includes humans in the totality of their existence.
- It leads to total and all-encompassing life-commitment.
- The encounter that generates religious beliefs is the idea of the fundamental mystery of our existence
and the attempt to find answers in this respect.
- Rudolf Otto (The idea of the holy) refers to this concept of the fundamental mystery of our existence as
Mysterium tremendum et fascinans. He explains that the typical religious experience involves a person
being overcome, passively gripped, and actively directed. Religion is the striving for salvation, in which
the predicament of life (Who am I? Why am I here? What is point of it all?) is overcome and spiritual life-
fulfilment is achieved.
- Tilich suggests that religion is the expression of humanity’s ultimate concern: that which matters to us
ultimately, in the last/final instance.
- Manifestations of religious engagement with the mystery of existence can be:
- Life-attitudes (praise, trust, awe, dedication).
- Action-patterns (rituals and moral policy).
- System of convictions (mythical stories and/or doctrinal tradition).
- Religion is a personal, but never an individualistic matter/concern
INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION (POR)
- There is no single, clearly delineated meaning of ‘philosophy of religion.’
- Very often, it has been regarded as camouflaged apologetics— apologetics, here, is a theological term
referring to the effort to defend the Christian faith against its legitimacy.
- Similarly, the philosophy of religion is not only ‘natural theology’ (as proposed by Thomas Aquinas) and
the brief that god’s existence can be defended mainly by your own rational input.
- Philosophy of Religion is technically the ‘philosophical reflection on religion’ but this definition only begs
the question of what this reflection should entail.
,- Philosophy of Religion is not religious education. It is often practiced by agnostics and atheists as well as
religious groups.
- Philosophy of Religion is a branch of philosophy, not theology.
- theology is a reflection on faith, it asks questions which function within the assumptions and
practices of religion. Questions presupposes a number of things which are not necessarily shared
with philosophy. EX: “why was it necessary for God to become human?”
- philosophy, asks questions about religion. EX: “are ‘God’ and ‘evil' reconcilable concepts?,” “How
should we regard God as an agent of action if God doesn’t have a body?,” “How must we understand
knowledge claims of religious statements without any tangible support?”
- William Rowe defines philosophy of religion as ‘the critical examination of basic religious beliefs and
concepts.’ Philosophy of religion is to religion what the philosophy of science is to science. However, it
may be argued that Rowe’s definition still requires some content.
- Perhaps we can look at POR as an attempt to answer conceptual questions. But we find both conceptual
questions and questions of meaning in POR. Thus, it investigates religion not empirically, but logically: it
investigates what makes sense to say within religion, and how it makes sense.
- Hudson formulates this definition of POR:
(i) It furnishes us with an analytical description of the logical structure of religious belief and thereby
discovers for us how, in respect of its logical structure, religious belief is like, and how unlike, other
universes of discourse such as science and morality”;
(ii) It provides a critical assessment of particular moves which have been made in the expression,
definition or defense of religious belief, thereby discovering whether such moves were valid or not.
- Philosophy of religion is also an attempt to answer questions of meaning. It asks questions regarding the
value, importance and relevance of religion for individuals and communities. EX: “Is religion necessary,
or does it concern needs which can be fulfilled differently?,” “Is it opium for the masses?,” “Is religion a
primitive remnant that has become obsolete in our time?,” “Does is still make sense to speak of God in a
culture which is secularised to a great extent?,” etc.
, Topic 2 — The Ontological Argument
The name of this argument/proof was given to it by Immanuel Kant (18th century), although critics say that
“A priori” or “Conceptual” proof would have been more appropriate. The ontological proof was first
developed by St Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, and it was first formulated in the 12th century in his
book titled Proslogion.
Unlike the cosmological proof (which is purely a posteriori), is purely a priori. It does not draw on any
empirical support or human experience. The proof is a very sophisticated conceptual analysis; the concept
“God” is analysed, and from that analysis it is deduced that God must exist.
Importance of the ontological proof:
1. It is a central argument in the philosophy of religion.
2. Excellent intellectual exercise for any undergraduate philosophy student, irrespective of interest in
religion or the philosophy of religion.
3. Renewed interest in 20th century.
IMPORTANT DISTINCTIONS WITH REGARD TO THE
ONTOLOGICAL PROOF FOR THE EXISTENCE OF GOD
1. Distinction between concepts (structures by which we identify and classify things in the world) and the
things to which concepts refer. Experiencing the general concept of a tree does not we are experiencing
all trees. Instead, an individual jacaranda tree instantiates the concept of jacaranda tress.
2. Distinction between concepts that refer to existing things (ex: dogs, buildings, etc.) and non-existing
things (ex: unicorns, elves, etc).
Both of these concepts are contingent concepts. This means that whether or no these things actually
exist, they need not necessarily exist. Just as we can picture a world in which dogs and buildings do
not exist, we can picture one in which unicorns and elves do exist.
3. Distinction between contingent concepts, and logically contradictory concepts, that is concepts which
refer to/are instantiated by impossible things/things which cannot exist. ex: square circles, cubical
spheres.
4. Distinction between impossible things (logically contradictory concepts) and logically necessary
things, that is things that, if they exist, must exist. When a concept is logically necessary, it exists by
definition.
5. Distinction between: a) impossible things — logically contradictory concepts, b) possible things—
contingent concepts, and c) necessary things— logically necessary concepts.
6. Distinction between existence in reality (“in re”) and existence in the mind (“in intellectu”). Dog, for
example, is something we know exists in re and in intellectu. Something of which the existence is denied
in re, must indeed exist in intellectu, otherwise we do not know what it is exactly that we are denying the
existence of in re.
7. Distinction between greatest existing being (in re), and the greatest conceivable being (in intellectu).
Anselm argues that God exists, not as the greatest being that exists, but as the greatest conceivable/
thinkable being. Unlike the greatest existing being, the greatest conceivable being does not exist in
reality, only in the intellect.
8. Distinction between greatness and physical size. According to Anselm, greatness refers to value.
Referring to the greatness of the ‘greatest conceivable being’, is a value judgement, rather than a
statement about it physical size.
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