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Resilience to Violence notes (lecture 1-7)
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Detailed notes lecture 1 to 7 from the course Resilience to Violence,
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Lecture 1 - Resilience to ViolenceBackground
• Violence studies: Victims and Offenders and Resilience to Violence
• Violence@fgga.leidenuniv.nl
• Focus on interpersonal violence (most often experienced type of violence for children, impact of
violence on children)
• Today: Violence and its effects + how it makes people vulnerable to other violence in future life
(cycle of violence)
◦What is resilience? How is it measured? How has the concept changed in the past 50 years?
Quantification of resilience. What are the factors that make resilience possible (psychological,
social, cultural factors)
Resilience
• “The act or rebounding”
• Persist in a similar state after a disturbance
• By 1824 the term has developed to encompass the meaning of ‘elasticity’
• Psychology, developmental studies, child studies and the relationship with resilience
◦Positive adaptation in the context of risk or adversity (resilience)
◦Two things are important to see if someone is showing resilience (and to be quantified):
‣ Positive adaptation (general definition, fluctuates, very person for each individual; vary
across age or time, different for younger and older people; in developmental sciences
‘positive adaptation’ means good outcomes in terms of behaviour, mental health,
contribution to society, school status, etc.)
• Different pathways through which resilience can be achieved
• Resilience is dynamic (dynamic process)
‣ Risk or adversity
• Different types of violence
• Adverse childhood experience (interpersonal violence) —> any negative event,
unexpected in normal development, that the children have to adapt to
◦Verbal abuse, sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional neglect, physical
neglect, etc.
How many children experience childhood trauma whilst growing up?
• Difference between incidence and prevalence
• 48% of adults have experienced childhood trauma (ACES, adversed childhood experiences)
• Meta-analysis: “A global perspective on child sexual abuse”, Stoltenborgh
• Child abuse (sex and physical abuse) are more investigated and easier to investigate (boundary for
child neglect is more blurry, you could neglect a child but you cannot abuse him/her), easier to see
(bruises and wounds), most important type of violence, more harmful than child neglect. It is clear
that abusing sexually a child is wrong, but emotional abuse (shouting at a child) is more difficult to
define. Emotional neglect, a single incident doesn’t count as emotional neglect. One sexual abuse
counts as sexual abuse.
• The majority of studies only asked if the subjects were victims of sexual abuse (self-report). Small
percentage of studies focus on reports by professionals. Our knowledge on violence on children is
primarily from asking individuals and less from asking professionals.
• Prevalence rates (prevalence, number of people in population that has a certain thing)
◦The majority of individuals who self report child maltreatment have experienced emotional
abuse (verbal violence, not physically harmful but emotionally harmful) —> emotional abuse is
the core of other types of abuse (most children sexually abused also suffered emotional
abuse)
, ◦Emotional maltreatment - neglect (withholding love, favouring siblings)- abuse (screaming,
shouting)
◦Often forms of maltreatment overlap (not one type of maltreatment but multiple at the same
time)
◦Only small percentages of emotional abuse were reported to official or professionals
(discrepancy of prevalence of self report and professional report). Why?
‣ Professionals only see the tip of the iceberg (severe cases, victims with marks or bruises)
‣ Not easily seen
‣ They see the children reported by child protective agency, doctors, police, etc. they only
see the children of whom we know are abused or neglected
‣ Time of the assessment (longer period of time for victims, shorter period of time for
professionals — a victim has been a victim his whole life, a professional has seen the
victim for a limited period of time)
What are the effects of childhood trauma?
• Important to know in order to help children through recover
• Effects of childhood trauma on mental illness (Emmy Warner)
• 1955 Children of Kauai, development of all babies born on the island of Kauai
◦Mixed children (Asia, Philippines, etc.), how many risk factors they experienced before the 2
years of age (poverty, stress during of after pregnancy, alcohol or drug abused, criminal or
mental ill parents, risk factors)
◦200 of these children were classified as high risk (2 or more of risk categories)
◦2/3 significant problems at age 10 or 18
◦1/3 showed resilience
• Important to study young people to learn clues and mechanism of resilience in childhood and
adulthood. Significant turn for the better later in life (late bloomers).
• Why do some children who experience trauma develop poorly, but others don’t?
• Social support and cohesion. Resilience is dependent on social support and cohesion.
Child Maltreatment and Victimisation (Maximiliam Scheuplein) — PART 1
• Victimisation within and outside the family
◦Cycle of victimisation, the increased risked of maltreated individuals to victimise others later in
life
• Underlying neurobiological architecture of the cycle
◦Mechanism connecting child maltreatment and victimisation
• How to break the cycle of victimisation
◦Importance of the social environment, interventions, etc.
• Between 1966 and 2020, 168 US mass shootings (average age 34 of shooter)
• 42% of US mass shooters have a history of childhood adversity
• Four commonalities of US mass shooters:
◦History of childhood adversity (umbrella term that can include child maltreatment, abuse,
neglect, but also bullying, poverty)
, ◦Identifiable grievance or crisis point
◦Studied the actions of past shooters and seek validation for their methods and motives
◦Means to carry out an attack
What’s child maltreatment?
• Defined as ‘abusive or neglectful experiences that occur to children and adolescence under the
age of 18’
• Five types of child maltreatment:
◦Physical abuse
◦Emotional abuse
◦Sexual abuse
◦Physical neglect
◦Emotional neglect
• Research has shown that individuals with history of maltreatment have increased risk of facing life
wrong consequences (vulnerable cognitive and social emotional functioning, lower well being and
diminished physical and mental wellness)
Victimisation within the family environment
• Experiencing violence during childhood can have a long term impact on victimisation across
generations
FIRST GENERATION (G1) —> SECOND GENERATION (G2) —> THIRD GENERATION (G3)
• Intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment hypothesis (two perspectives):
◦Victim-to-perpetrator perspective
‣ Victims of child maltreatment are at increased risk of becoming perpetrators of
maltreatment once they become parents
◦Victim-to-victim perspective
‣ Children of parent who have been maltreated during childhood are more likely to become
victims of maltreatment themselves. However, according to this perspective, parents do
not necessarily act as the perpetrator.
How good is the evidence?
• Systematic review, Does maltreatment beget maltreatment?
• 47 studies investigated the intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment hypothesis
• Those studies were evaluated based on 11 methodological criteria:
◦Recruitment of a representative sample
◦Using valid, reliable, and similar measures
◦Prospective vs. Retrospective study design
• The methodological stronger studies presented mixed support for the intergenerational
transmission of child maltreatment hypothesis.
• The positive association between children maltreatment and victimisation relies on studies that
were weaker in methodological approaches.
• Need for more robust and methodological adequate assessments of the intergenerational
transmission hypothesis which is important for the development of prevention and intervention
programmes
Victim-to-perpetrator perspective confirmed
• There are studies designed to overcome limitations
• Ex. Study from 2015 (30 year cohort study) — Widom et al. (2015)
• Interviewed individuals with a documented history of child maltreatment and a subset of their
children
◦Meaning they used court substantiated case to avoid ambiguity and potential biases
, associated with retrospective recall
◦Primary focus
‣ Do individuals with a history of child maltreatment continue the intergenerational
transmission of maltreatment towards their own offspring or someone else’s child?
‣ Are different types of maltreatment passed on from one generation to the next?
Studies prove that…
• Children of parents who have been maltreated during their childhood are more likely to become
victims of maltreatment themselves (victim-to-victim perspective).
• Victims of child maltreatment are at increased risk of becoming perpetrators of maltreatment once
they become parents (victim-to-perpetrator perspective).
◦However, the majority of maltreated parents do not continue the cycle of victimisation
• Caregivers who have experienced maltreatment are not destined to continue the cycle of
victimisation.
Victimisation outside the family environment
• Past experiences of child maltreatment are common in delinquent youth populations
• The risk of offending behaviour is 1.8x higher for maltreated individuals compared to non-
maltreated individuals
The Rochester Youth Development Study
• First large scale longitudinal study with 1000 American students aged 12-14 years to investigate
contextual features (i.e., frequency, severity and duration of maltreatment)
• Adolescent and their primary caregiver were interviewed every 6 months over 4.5 years
• The researchers used five indicators of maltreatment:
◦Prevalence
‣ Denoting whether or not the adolescent was victim of any type of maltreatment before the
age of 12
◦Frequency
‣ Denoting the number of different substantiated incidents of maltreatment up to the age of
12
◦Duration
‣ Duration of the official investigation (proxy for the severity and complexity of the case)
◦Type
‣ Different types of maltreatment
◦Total severity
‣ Total severity score indicating the severity across subtypes of maltreatment
• Key findings
◦Significant association between a history of maltreatment before the age of 12 and delinquent
behaviour
◦This association increased as the severity of maltreatment increased
Summary
• Experiencing maltreatment during childhood can have a long-term impact on victimisation across
generations (victim-to-perpetrator, victim-to-victim perspective)
• Extreme levels of maltreatment can lead to higher rates of (violent) delinquency
• The child maltreatment-offending relation is not deterministic
◦Instead, this association is influenced by a complex interplay of individual, social, and
contextual factors
Quiz questions
• List the different types of child maltreatment
◦Physical abuse
◦Emotional abuse
◦Sexual abuse
◦Physical neglect
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