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Summary Political Rhetoric

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  • February 25, 2022
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  • 2021/2022
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1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................... 5

1.1. The importance of PR................................................................................................................................................................5

1.2. What is rhetoric? The practice of speech and persuasion…......................................................................................................5

1.3. Political rhetoric.........................................................................................................................................................................5

1.4. A diverse research field?............................................................................................................................................................6

2. Rhetoric, a contested notion (Handbook: chapter 1 & 2)...................................................................................................... 6

2.1. Rhetoric was central to ancient democracy (Greece and Rome)..............................................................................................6

2.1.1. Plato  against rhetoric............................................................................................................................................................7

2.1.2. Aristotle (student from Plato)  in favour of rhetoric ...............................................................................................................8

2.1.3. Cicero......................................................................................................................................................................................9

2.2. Rhetoric diminished when modern state emerged (retoriek nam af toen de modern staat opkwam)....................................9

2.2.1. Hobbes....................................................................................................................................................................................9

2.2.2. Rousseau.................................................................................................................................................................................9

2.3. The political vs politics.............................................................................................................................................................10

3. Classical rhetoric – discovery and arrangement.................................................................................................................. 11

3.1. Occasions of speech.................................................................................................................................................................11

3.2. The issue = verwijst naar wat er op het spel staat bij een toespraak (what is at stake on any speech occasion)..................12

3.3. Discorvery = invention.............................................................................................................................................................12

3.3.1. Logos (reason)......................................................................................................................................................................12

3.3.2. Ethos (speakers’s character/authority)................................................................................................................................13

3.3.3. Pathos (emotion = the appeal to sentiment)........................................................................................................................14

3.4. Arrangement...........................................................................................................................................................................14

4. Style = the use of language................................................................................................................................................. 16

4.1. Figures of speech.....................................................................................................................................................................17
4.1.1. Schemes – repetition............................................................................................................................................................17

4.1.2. Schemes – playing with the grammar/syntactic patterns...................................................................................................18

4.1.3. Schemes – interaction..........................................................................................................................................................18

4.1.4. Tropes – substitution = the use of particular words to connote certain meanings..............................................................19

5. Delivery = deals with the techniques and qualities of performance.....................................................................................21

6. Acient rhetoric – conclusion............................................................................................................................................... 21

7. Mass media & rhetoric: speaking for the public.................................................................................................................. 22

7.1. The mediazation of politics / mediating the public domain....................................................................................................22

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, 7.2. The media’s ambiguous role...................................................................................................................................................22

7.3. What’s news?..........................................................................................................................................................................23

7.3.1. News values..........................................................................................................................................................................23

7.4. Why do politicians adapt? Why do they really want to make it in the media?......................................................................24

7.5. The rhetoric politicians............................................................................................................................................................24

7.6. The rhetoric of mass media.....................................................................................................................................................26

7.7. Media and cultural studies......................................................................................................................................................26

7.8. television news as rhetorical genre.........................................................................................................................................26

7.9. Episodic vs thematic framing...................................................................................................................................................28

7.10. Media: curse or blessing for political rhetoric?.....................................................................................................................29

8. Research methods in PR – rhetorical political analysis........................................................................................................ 30

8.1. Diverse research goals.............................................................................................................................................................30

8.2. Rhetorical political analyses (RPA) = applying rhetoric to the study of politics......................................................................30

8.3. Focus on “ideas” (RPA)............................................................................................................................................................30

8.4. Question of agency (RPA)........................................................................................................................................................31

8.5. How to do rhetorical political analysis (RPA)  a method.........................................................................................................32

8.6. Example RPA: inaugural speech of president John F. Kennedy...............................................................................................32

8.7. Quantitative content analysis (QCA).......................................................................................................................................33

8.8. How to do quantitative content analysis (QCA)......................................................................................................................34

8.9. Example QCA: Kalkhoven 2017................................................................................................................................................34

8.10. Internal/external validity (QCA)............................................................................................................................................35

8.11. Experimental research...........................................................................................................................................................35

8.12. How to do experimental research.........................................................................................................................................36

8.13. Example experiment: Tomz 2007..........................................................................................................................................36

8.14. Challenges (experimental research)......................................................................................................................................37

8.15. Other methods.......................................................................................................................................................................37

9. emotion & incivility (onbeleefdheid) – democracy, rhetoric and emotions..........................................................................37

9.1. deliberative democracy (to eliminate or minimize rhetorical exchanges in public dialogue).................................................38

9.2. Intro neuroscience/psychoanalysis  both share the views that reason and emotion are interlinked .....................................39

9.2.1. neuroscience.........................................................................................................................................................................39

9.2.1.1. The use of fear/anxiety & enthusiasm (2 emotions that Marcus explains)  with these emotions we can recognize the
accomplishment of persuasion (if we can’t see these emotions, we wouldn’t be able to do this)................................................40

9.2.1.2. Measuring affect...............................................................................................................................................................41

9.2.1.3. Emotional appeal of family metaphors.............................................................................................................................41

9.2.2. Psychoanalysis......................................................................................................................................................................41

9.3. Incivility (onbeleefdheid  hate speech…) in politics.................................................................................................................42

9.4. Occurrence of incivility in politics............................................................................................................................................43
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, 9.5. Effects of incivility in politics....................................................................................................................................................43

9.6. Emotional rhetoric: curse or blessing?....................................................................................................................................45

10. How persuasive is simple elite communication? Effects on like-minded and polarized audiences (guest lecture)...............46

10.1. Background: What is Political Persuasion?...........................................................................................................................46

10.2. Outline...................................................................................................................................................................................46

10.3. The starting point of this study: three major claims.............................................................................................................46

10.4. A conceptual example...........................................................................................................................................................47

10.5. Theoretical motivation..........................................................................................................................................................47

10.6. Premises.................................................................................................................................................................................47

10.7. Theoretical principle..............................................................................................................................................................47

10.8. Hypotheses............................................................................................................................................................................48

10.9. Complexity manipulation (democrat)....................................................................................................................................49

10.10. Dependent variable: post-treatment policy support...........................................................................................................49

10.11. Ensuring the study’s validity................................................................................................................................................49

10.12. Method................................................................................................................................................................................51

10.13. Results.................................................................................................................................................................................51

10.14. Experiment 2: summary......................................................................................................................................................52

10.15. So, how do voters respond to simple rhetoric? Results Overview.......................................................................................52

10.16. Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................................53

11. Deliberative democracy – democracy as a puzzle (chapter 3: the rhetorical citizen)...........................................................53

11.1. Citizenship: ancient and modern...........................................................................................................................................53

11.2. What is politics? The politics of representation....................................................................................................................54

11.3. But then what?......................................................................................................................................................................56

11.4. Deliberative democracy as a solution....................................................................................................................................56

11.5. Should rationality be one of them or can emotions have their place?.................................................................................57

12. The rhetoric of populist leaders and parties...................................................................................................................... 57

12.1. Populism is all over the news................................................................................................................................................57

12.2. What is populism?.................................................................................................................................................................57

12.3. Diversity of populism.............................................................................................................................................................58

12.4. Example.................................................................................................................................................................................59

12.5. Populism as a communication style......................................................................................................................................59

12.6. The people as a rhetorical construct.....................................................................................................................................59

12.7. Elements of populist rhetoric.................................................................................................................................................59

12.7.1. Patriotism/ Invoking the heartland....................................................................................................................................59

12.7.2. Crisis rhetoric......................................................................................................................................................................60

12.7.3. Absolutism..........................................................................................................................................................................60

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, 12.7.4. Colloquial language............................................................................................................................................................60

12.7.5. Emotionalization / negativism...........................................................................................................................................60

12.7.6. Intimization.........................................................................................................................................................................60

12.8. Exercise..................................................................................................................................................................................61

12.9. Populist language, simplistic language?...............................................................................................................................61

12.10. Use of populist rhetoric.......................................................................................................................................................62

12.11. Who uses populist rhetoric?................................................................................................................................................63

12.12. On what channels do politicians go populist?.....................................................................................................................63




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