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Cellen Samenvatting hoofdstuk 1 t/m 15
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Bondige samenvatting voor het leren van cellen tentamen
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Essential Cell Biology 5th Edition by Alberts
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Essential Cell Biology 5th Edition by Alberts
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COMPLETE TEST BANK: ESSENTIAL CELL BIOLOGY 5TH EDITION ALBERTS [ CONTAIN ANSWER KEY Questions with 100% correct Answer.
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InhoudsopgaveCH. 1 blz 1 t/m 27...........................................................................................5
Unity and diversity of cells.............................................................................................. 5
Cells vary enormously in appearance and function......................................................5
Living cells all have a similar basic chemistry..............................................................5
Living cells are self-replicating collections of catalysts................................................5
All living cells have apparently evolved from the same ancestral cell.........................5
Genes provide instructions for the form, function and behavior of cells and organisms
.................................................................................................................................... 5
Cells under the microscope............................................................................................. 6
The invention of the light microscope led to the discovery of cells..............................6
Light microscopes reveals some of a cell’s components..............................................6
The fine structure of a cell is revealed by electron microscopy...................................6
The prokaryotic cell......................................................................................................... 7
Prokaryotes are the most diverse and numerous cells on earth..................................7
The world of prokaryotes is devided into two domains: bacteria and archaea.............7
The eukaryotic cell.......................................................................................................... 7
The nucleus is the information store of the cell...........................................................7
Mitochondria generate usable energy from food molecules.........................................7
Chloroplasts capture energy from sunlight..................................................................8
Internal membranes create intracellular compartments with different functions.........8
The cytosol is a concentrated aqueous gel of large and small molecules....................8
The cytoskeleton is responsible for directed cell movements......................................8
The cytosol is far from static........................................................................................9
Ch. 3 Energy, catalysis and biosynthesis.......................................................10
Free energy and catalysis.............................................................................................10
Chemical reactions proceed in the direction that causes a loss of free energy..........10
Enzymes reduce the energy needed to intitiate spontaneous reactions....................10
Ch. 4 Protein structure and function..............................................................11
The shape and structure of proteins.............................................................................11
The shape of a protein is specified by its amino acid sequence.................................11
Proteins fold into a conformation of lowest energy....................................................11
Helices form readily in biological structures...............................................................11
-sheets form rigid structures at the core of many proteins......................................12
Proteins have several levels of organization..............................................................12
Proteins can be classified into families.......................................................................12
Large protein molecules often contain more than one polypeptide chain..................12
Some types of protein have elongated fibrous shapes...............................................12
Extracellular proteins are often stablized by covalent cross-linkages........................13
How proteins work........................................................................................................ 13
All proteins bind to other molecules...........................................................................13
Humans produce billions of different antibodies, each with a different binding site. .13
Lysozyme illustrates how an enzyme works...............................................................13
Many drugs inhibit enzymes......................................................................................14
Tightly bound small molecules add extra functions to proteins.................................14
1
, How proteins are controlled.......................................................................................... 15
The catalytic activities of enzymes are often regulated by other molecules..............15
Allosteric enzymes have two or more binding sites that influence one another.........15
Phosphorylation can control protein activity by causing a conformational change....15
Covalent modifications also control the location and interaction of proteins.............15
ATP hydrolysis allow motor proteins to produce directed movements in cells...........16
Proteins often form large complexes that function as machines................................16
Many interacting proteins are brought together by scaffolds.....................................16
How proteins are studied..............................................................................................16
Proteins can be purified from cells or tissues.............................................................16
Determining a protein’s structure begins with determining its amino acid sequence 16
Ch. 5 DNA and chromosomes........................................................................18
The structure of DNA..................................................................................................... 18
A DNA molecule consists of two complementary chains of nucleotides.....................18
The structure of eukaryotic chromosomes....................................................................18
Eukaryotic DNA is packaged into multiple chromosomes...........................................18
Chromosomes organise and carry genetic information..............................................18
Specialized DNA sequences are required for DNA replication and chromosome
segregation................................................................................................................ 18
Interphase chromosomes are not randomly distributed within the nucleus...............18
Nucleosomes are the basic units of eukaryotic chromosome structure.....................18
The regulation of chromosome structure......................................................................19
Changes in nucleosome structure allow acces to DNA...............................................19
Interphase chromosomes contain both highy condensed and more extended forms of
chromatin.................................................................................................................. 19
Ch. 6 DNA replication and repair...................................................................20
DNA-replicatie............................................................................................................... 20
Telomere length varies by cell type and with age......................................................21
DNA repair.................................................................................................................... 22
DNA damage occurs continually in cells.....................................................................22
Cells possess a variety of machanisms for repairing DNA..........................................22
A DNA mismatch repair system removes replication errors that escape proofreading
.................................................................................................................................. 22
Double-strand DNA breaks rewuire a different strategy for repair.............................22
Homologous recombination can flawlessly repair DA double-strand breaks..............22
Ch. 7 From DNA to protein............................................................................23
From DNA to RNA.......................................................................................................... 23
Portions of DNA sequence are stranscribed into RNA.................................................23
Transcription produces RNA tat is complementary to one strans of DNA...................23
Cells produce various types of RNA...........................................................................23
Signals in the DNA tell RNA-polymerase where to start and stop stranscription........23
Initiation of eukaryotic gene transcription is a complex process................................25
Eukaryotic RNA-polymerase requires general transcription factors...........................25
Eukaryotic mRNAs are processed in the nucleus.......................................................25
Introns are removed from pre-mRNAs by RNA splicing..............................................25
Mature eukaryotic mRNAs are exported from the nucleus.........................................26
2
, From RNA to protein...................................................................................................... 26
An mRNA sequence is decoded in sets of three nucleotides......................................26
tRNA molecules match aminoacids to codons in mRNA.............................................26
Specific enzymes couple tRNAs to the correct amino acid.........................................26
the mRNA message is decoded on ribosomes............................................................26
The ribosoome is a ribozyme.....................................................................................27
Specific codons in an mRNA signal the ribosome where to start an to stop protein
synthesis.................................................................................................................... 27
Controlled protein breakdown helps regulate the amount of each protein in a cell. . .27
Ch. 11 Membrane structure..........................................................................28
The lipid bilayer............................................................................................................ 28
Membrane lipids form bilayers in water.....................................................................28
The lipid bilayer is a flexible two-dimensional fluid....................................................28
The fluidity of a lipid bilayer depends on its composition...........................................28
Membrane assembly begins in the ER.......................................................................28
Certain phospholipids are confined to one side of the membrane.............................29
Membrane proteins....................................................................................................... 29
Membrane proteins associate with the lipid bilayer in different ways........................29
Membrane proteins can be solubilized in detergents.................................................29
The plasma membrane is reinforced by the underlying cell cortex............................29
A cell can restrict the movement of its membrane proteins.......................................30
The cell surface is coated with carbohydrate.............................................................30
Ch. 12 Transport across cell membranes.......................................................31
Principles of transmembrane transport.........................................................................31
Lipid bilayers are impermeable to ions and most uncharged polar molecules...........31
The ion concentrations inside a cell are very different from those outside................31
Differences in the concentration of inorganic ions across a cell membrane create
membrane potential.................................................................................................. 31
Cells contain two classes of membrane transport proteins: Transporters and channels
.................................................................................................................................. 31
Solutes cross membranes by either passive or active transport................................31
Both the concentration gradient and membrane potential influence the passive
transport of charged solutes......................................................................................32
Water moves across cell membranes down its concentration gradient, a process
called osmosis............................................................................................................ 32
Transporters and their functions...................................................................................32
Passive transporters move a solute along its electrochemical gradient.....................32
Pumps actively transport a solute against its electrochemical gradient.....................32
The Na+ pump in animal cells uses energy supplied by ATP to expel Na+ and bring in
K+............................................................................................................................... 32
Ca2+ pumps keep the cytosolic Ca2+ concentration low..............................................32
Gradient-driven pumps exploit solute gradients to mediate active transport............32
The electrochemical Na+ gradient drives the transport of glucose across the plasma
membrane of animal cells.......................................................................................... 33
Ion channels and the membrane potential....................................................................34
Ion channels are ion-selective and gated...................................................................34
Membrane potential is governed by the permeability of a membrane to specific ions
.................................................................................................................................. 34
3
, Ion channels randomly snap between open and closed states...................................34
Different types of stimuli influence the opening and closing of ion channels.............34
Ion channels and nerve cell signaling...........................................................................34
Action potentials are mediated by voltage-gated cation channels.............................34
Voltage-gated Ca+ channels in nerve terminals convert an electrical signal into a
chemical signal.......................................................................................................... 35
Transmitter-gated ion channels in the postsynaptic membrane convert the chemical
signal back into an electrical signal...........................................................................35
Light-gated ion channels can be used in transiently activate or inactivate neurons in
living animals............................................................................................................. 35
Ch. 19 Sexual reproduction and genetics.......................................................36
Meiosis and fertilization................................................................................................36
Meiosis involves one round of DNA replication followed by two rounds of nuclear
division...................................................................................................................... 36
Duplicated homologous chromosomes pair during meiotic prophase........................36
Crossing-over occurs between the duplicated maternal and paternal chromosomes in
each bivalent............................................................................................................. 36
CH. 15 Intracellular compartments and protein transport...............................37
Membrane-enclosed organelles....................................................................................37
Membrane-enclosed organelles evolved in different ways.........................................37
Protein sorting............................................................................................................... 37
Proteins are transported into organelles by three mechanisms.................................37
Signal sequences direct proteins to the correct compartment...................................37
Proteins enter the nucleus through nuclear pores.....................................................37
Proteins unfold to enter mitochondria and chloroplasts.............................................38
Proteins enter peroxisomes from both the cytosol and the endoplasmic reticulum.. .38
Proteins enter the endoplasmic reticulum while being synthesized...........................38
Soluble proteins made on the ER are released into the ER lumen..............................38
Vesicular transport........................................................................................................ 39
Vesicle budding is driven by the assembly of a protein coat......................................39
Vesicle docking depends on tethers and SNAREs.......................................................39
Secretory pathways...................................................................................................... 39
Most proteins are covalently modified in the ER........................................................39
Exit from the ER is controlled to ensure protein quality.............................................39
The size of the ER is controlled by the demand for protein folding............................40
Proteins are further modified and sorted in the Golgi apparatus...............................40
Endocytic pathways...................................................................................................... 40
Specialized phagocytic cells ingest large particles.....................................................40
Receptor-mediated endocytosis provides a specific route into animal cells...............40
Endocytosed macromolecules are sorted in endosomes............................................40
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