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Samenvatting Early Modern History I
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This is a summary of the course Early Modern History I. It concerns chapters 12 to 15 of the book “A History of Western Society”
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Samenvatting Moderne Geschiedenis 1 - Radboud
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Samenvatting Early Modern History II - Radboud
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EARLY MODERN HISTORY ISummary
Chapter 12 – European Society in the Age of the Renaissance 1350-1550
ca. 1350 Petrarch develops ideas of humanism
1434-1737 Medici family in power in Florence
1440s Invention of movable metal type
1447-1535 Sforza family in power in Milan
1455-1471 Wars of the Roses in England
1469 Marriage of Isabella of Castille and Ferdinand of
Aragon
1477 Louis XI conquers Burgundy
1478 Establishment of the Inquisition in Spain
1492 Spain conquers Granada, ending Reconquista;
practicing Jews expelled from Spain
1494 Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII of France
1508-1512 Michelangelo paints ceiling of Sistine Chapel
1513 Machiavelli writes the Prince
1563 Establishment of first formal academy for
artistic training in Florence
How did politics and economics shape the Renaissance?
Economic and political developments in Italy caused the Renaissance. Economic growth laid the basis
and merchants gained political power to match their economic power. They bought luxuries and hired
talent in a system of patronage commissioned writers and artists to produce specific works.
Trade and Prosperity
4 northern Italian cities were commercially important:
1. Venice
o Huge merchant marine grown rich through overseas trade
2. Genoa
o Own sizeable fleet
3. Milan
o Own sizeable fleet
4. Florence
o Situated on fertile soil along Arno River favorable location commercial hub
o Florentine merchants loaned and invested money, acquired control of papal banking
The profits from loans, investments and money exchanges were pumped
into urban industries economic vitality
o Florence could not be destroyed by crises
King Edward III of England repudiated (verworpen) his debts to Florentine
bankers bankruptcy
Black Death: Florence lost half of its population labor unrest
Basic Florentine economic structure still remained stable
o Wealth allowed people greater material pleasures (art/luxuries)
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,Communes and Republics of Northern Italy
The norther cities were communes: free men seek political and economic independence from local
nobles. The local nobles moved into the cities, marrying daughters of rich commercial families and
starting their own businesses merger of northern Italian nobility and commercial elite powerful
oligarchy. Yet, there was political instability:
Rivalries in this oligarchy among powerful families
Citizenship depended on property qualification, years of residence within the city and social
connections only tiny percentage of men possessed these qualities
o These people were called the popolo, they were disenfranchised and heavily taxed
The popolo used armed forces to take over city governments. Sometimes a republican government
was founded (victory for popolo), but this could not stand long because it lacked civil order
merchant oligarchies reasserted power and brought in powerful military leaders to establish order:
condottieri. These leaders had their own mercenary armies took over political power.
Many cities in Italy became signori: one man (condottiero, merchant or noble) ruled and handed
down rule to his son. Some signori had no actual power. There was not much difference between
oligarchic regimes and signori: oligarchies maintained façade of republican government, but judicial,
executive and legislative functions were restricted to a small class of wealthy merchants.
The signori and powerful merchant oligarchs transformed their households into courts display and
assert their wealth and power.
City-States and the Balance of Power
Italians were attached to their individual city-states hindered the development of one unified
state. In the 15th century, 5 powers dominated the peninsula: Venice, Milan, Florence, the Papal
States and the kingdom of Naples. They controlled smaller city-states. While states in Europe were
moving toward centralization and consolidation, Italian politics resembled a jungle were powerful
dominated the weak. Although most of these powerful cities were republic in name, an
oligarchy/signori ran the city. In Florence, the authority was vested in the Medici family, beginning in
1434. In 1569 Florence became hereditary Grand Duchy of Tuscany, with Medici as Grand Dukes until
1737. The Medici possessed 3 popes, not for their piety but for their political skills:
Pope Alexander VI was most ruthless: reasserted papal authority in the papal lands
Whenever one Italia state appeared to have a predominant position, other states combined against it
try to establish balance of power. In the formation of these balances, the Italians invented the
machinery of modern diplomacy: permanent embassies with resident ambassadors. The resident
ambassador was one of the great political achievements of Italian Renaissance.
The wealthy and divided cities of Italy were a target for invasion. Florence and Naples wanted to
acquire Milanese territories Milan called for French support, the French king Charles VIII invaded
Italy in 1494. Friar (monnik) Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) preached that God would punish Italy
for its moral vice and corrupt leadership. The French invasion fulfilled this prophecy and the Medici
dynasty was expelled. Savonarola became leader:
He reorganized the government
Pass laws against same-sex relations, adultery, drunkenness
o Young men patrolled the streets to look for immoral dress and behavior
Held religious processions: “bonfires of the vanities” fancy clothing, cosmetics, pagan
books, musical instruments, paintings and poetry were burned
Savonarola was popular, but people got tired of him. The pope excommunicated him, he was
tortured and burned. The Medici returned as rulers of Florence.
2
,The French invasion inaugurated a new period in Italian and European power politics. Italy became
focus of international ambitions and battleground of foreign armies (Holy Roman Empire and France
Habsburg-Valois wars). The failure of city-states to consolidate (or establish foreign policy) led to
centuries of subjection by outside invaders.
What new ideas were associated with the Renaissance?
Through reflecting on the classics (Latin/Greek literature and philosophy), Renaissance thinkers
developed new notions of human nature, new plans for education and new concepts of political rule.
The printing press greatly accelerated the spread of these new ideas through Europe.
Humanism
There were many important people who formed the Renaissance:
Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374): he was obsessed with the classical past and felt that the
writers and artists of ancient Rome had reached a level of perfection in their work that has
not been duplicated since. Writers should ignore the thousand-year period between his own
time and that of Rome (the “dark ages”). Petrarch thought he was witnessing the dawning of
a new era.
o He proposed a new kind of education in 1350: the study of Latin classics studia
humanitates. People who studied this were known as humanists and their program
as humanism. Humanism was main intellectual component of Renaissance. Implicit
philosophy: human nature and achievements, evident in the classics, were worthy of
contemplation
Cicero (106-43BC): he lived under turbulent era of Julius Caesar, when the Roman Republic
was transformed into an empire. He was admired for his use of language, literary style and
political ideas.
Leonardo Bruni (1374-1444): linked the decline of Latin language after the death of Cicero to
the decline of the Roman Republic. Bruni was the first to divide history into 3 eras: ancient,
medieval and modern.
Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499): his lectures became known as the Platonic Academy. Ficino
regarded Plato as divinely inspired precursor to Christ. Plato’s emphasis on the spiritual and
eternal over the material and transient, fit well with Christian teachings about the
immortality of the soul.
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494): student of Ficino. Pico developed his ideas in a
series of 900 theses (humanism linked material and spiritual natures). These ideas were seen
as heretical and he was arrested but later freed through Lorenzo de’ Medici.
o After Lorenzo’s death, he became follower of Savonarola; renounced (afstand
gedaan) his ideas and former writings.
Man’s divinely bestowed nature meant that there were no limits to what he could accomplish.
Renaissance thinkers were interested in individuals who had risen above their background to become
brilliant, powerful or unique. Such individuals had the quality of virtù: the ability to shape the world
around according to one’s will.
Vasari: artists could exhibit virtù. His subjects had achieved the pinnacle of excellence. Vasari
discusses himself in his book too (The lives of the most excellent Painters, Sculptors and
Architects), clearly feeling he has achieved some level of excellence.
Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472): thought of himself as excellent. His achievements in many
fields make Alberti a ‘Renaissance man’.
Plato taught that the best way to learn something was to think about its perfect, ideal form
Renaissance authors speculated about perfect examples of many things (society, houses, etc.)
3
, Education
Studying the classics would provide essential skills for future politicians, diplomats, lawyers, military
leaders and businessman as well as writers and artisans broader/more practical than that offered
at universities. Beginning 15th century humanists opened schools and academies: pupils began with
Latin grammar and rhetoric, then studied Roman history and political philosophy, learned Greek and
study Greek literature and philosophy. Humanist education became basis for intermediate and
advanced education.
Humanists disagreed about education for women:
Many saw value of exposing women to classical models of moral behavior and reasoning, but
wondered whether this was proper for women
Alberti stressed that a wife’s role should be restricted to the orderliness of the household,
food preparation, serving meals, educate the children and supervise servants
A few women did become educated in the classics, and wrote and published poetry, fiction and
essays in Latin and vernacular languages.
Baldassare Castiglione’s book the Courtier (1528) was very important:
Sought to train, discipline, and fashion young man into the courtly ideal; the gentleman.
o The educated man should have a broad background in many academic subjects and
should train his spiritual and physical faculties as well as his intellect
Included discission of the perfect court lady; was to be well educated and able to paint,
dance and play a musical instrument
This book became a how-to manual for people seeking to improve themselves and rise in the social
hierarchy.
Political Thought
Ideal rulers (just, wise, pious, dignified, learned, brave, kind, distinguished) were hard to find. Bruni
argued that republicanism was the best form of government, although others argue that rule by an
enlightened individual might be best. Both sides agreed that educated men should be active in
political affairs of their city civic humanism.
The most famous (or infamous) humanist and political theorist was Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527):
After the ouster of the Medici family, Machiavelli was secretary: he was responsible for
diplomatic missions and the citizen army
o Medici family back to power Machiavelli arrested, tortured and imprisoned (for
plotting against them), but he was released and had no government position, so he
started writing: his first work most important one: the Prince (1513)
The function of a ruler is to preserve order and security
He believed that in order to preserve the state, a ruler should use whatever means he needs,
but should not do anything that would make the populace turn against him “it is much
safer for the prince to be feared than loved, but he ought to avoid making himself hated”
Effective rulers exhibited the quality of virtù
o Cesare Borgia (1475?-1507) was his primary example, son of Pope Alexander VI. He
combined his father’s power and his own ruthlessness to build of a state. Despite his
efforts, the state fell after his father died. Machiavelli did not describe this as weak,
but as operations of fate (fortuna).
Governments should be judged by how well they provided security, order and safety to their
populace
Ideals needed to be measured in the cold light of the real world
pragmatic views in combination with Machiavelli’s view on force and cruelty was unacceptable.
The Prince is seen as the first modern guide to politics, though Machiavelli was denounced for writing
it Machiavellian means cunning and ruthless.
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