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Summary of AQA AS-Level Sociology
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Full course guide for AQA AS-Level Sociology covering: -All core topics -Worked examples of exam questions to learn exam technique -Case studies -Key words and definitions
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Defining abnormality1) Deviating from social norms
Refers to deviant behaviour. I.e. behaviour that is somewhat anti-social or undesirable.
Limitations
Susceptible to abuse it varies as time changes. What is socially acceptable now may not have
been 50 years ago. E.g. homosexuals in the past were seen as mentally ill.
Deviance is related to context and degree making judgements on deviance is often related to
the context of a behaviour. E.g. if you wore a bikini on the beach, it is normal but in a classroom, it
wouldn’t be.
Cultural relativism social norms are influenced by cultural factors.
2) Failure to function adequately
Abnormality judged in terms of not being able to cope.
Limitations
Who judges? either the person notices a failure to function, or the people around them notice.
Adaptive or maladaptive? some dysfunctional behaviours can be adaptive and functional to the
individual.
Cultural relativism social norms are influenced by cultural factors.
3) Deviation from ideal mental health
Marie Jahoda (1958) pointed out that we define mental health by looking at the absence of signs of
physical health. PRAISE
PERSONAL GROWTH/SELF ACTUALISATION
REALITY PERCEPTION
AUTONOMY (independent)
INTEGRATION (being able to cope)
SELF-ATTITUDES (high self-esteem)
ENVIRONMENTAL MASTERY (adapting to new situations)
Limitations
Who can achieve all these criteria? according to these criteria, most people are abnormal.
Is mental health the same as physical health? unlikely that we can diagnose mental abnormality
in the same way we can diagnose physical abnormality.
Cultural relativism social norms are influenced by cultural factors.
, Approaches to psychopathology
Biological approach to psychopathology
Assumptions: the biological or medical model assumes that all mental disorders are related to some
change in the body. i.e. physical disorders. Such changes/illnesses may be caused by: genes,
biochemistry, neuroanatomy and viral infection.
Genetic inheritance passed on from parent to child. High concordance rates in schizophrenia with
twins.
Biochemistry e.g. high levels of serotonin = anxiety, low levels = depression.
Neuroanatomy e.g. schizophrenics have enlarged ventricles indicating shrinkage of brain tissue.
Viral infection some disorders e.g. schizophrenia are related to exposure to certain viruses in the
womb.
Limitations
Humane or inhumane? Thomas Szasz (1972) suggested that the concept of mental illness was
‘invented’ as a form of social control.
Cause and effect? available evidence does not support a simple cause and effect between mental
illness and brain chemistry.
Inconclusive evidence concordance rates are never 100%. E.g. in monozygotic twins there was a
concordance rate of about 50% of schizophrenia.
Psychodynamic approach to psychopathology
Assumptions: Freud’s idea of conflict in development and his division of personality into the id, ego
and superego. The theory is based on stages of development – oral, anal, phallic, latency and
genital stages. The model suggests that conflict/anxiety may occur during childhood, causing
psychological disorders later. Can use psychoanalysis to find and resolve conflicts. (hypnosis, free
association and dream analysis).
e.g. Little Hans had a phobia of horses because he had reached the phallic stage of development
and showed evidence of the Oedipus complex.
Defence mechanisms
Denial reject the though/feeling
Suppression vaguely away of the thought/feeling but try to hide it
Reaction formation you turn the feeling into its opposite
Projection you think someone else has your thought/feeling
Displacement redirect thoughts/feelings to another target
Rationalisation try to justify through explanation
Regression revert to old/immature behaviour
Sublimation redirect feeling into socially productive activity
Limitations
Based on subjective interpretations hard to scientifically test
Psychoanalysis is long/expensive
All depends on persons memory of childhood conflict/analysts interpretation
Focus is on the past
Strengths
Unique approach
Offers methods of therapy
First therapy to base psychological disorders on psychological causes
,Behavioural approach to psychopathology
It’s based on the idea that behaviours are learnt. Behaviourists argue that abnormal behaviours
are learnt in the same way that behaviour is learnt. We are born a blank slate. Through classical
and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning
Leads to development of abnormal behaviours e.g. phobias.
e.g. little Albert study conditioned a feared response in Little Albert due to a loud noise when
seeing white fluffy objects.
Operant conditioning
Learning through the consequences of actions. Actions which have a good outcome through
positive reinforcement (reward) or negative reinforcement (removal of something bad) will be
repeated. Actions which have a bad punishment will be repeated. E.g. ‘you look so skinny’ the
person keeps losing weight.
Behavioural therapies
Based on changes through conditioning. Behaviourists try to identify what reinforces unwanted
behaviours and try to change them through conditioning. E.g. operant conditioning in psychiatric
hospitals and exchanged for rewards (token economy).
Aversion therapy
This stops an undesired behaviour by associating it with unpleasant feelings e.g. giving alcoholics
alcohol at the same time as a nausea drug.
Systematic desensitisation
Treatment for phobias. Makes fear hierarchy. Use muscle relaxation technique to keep calm.
Based on conditioning principles.
Strengths
It’s a scientific approach clear testable concepts with substantial evidence.
Very effective therapy e.g. phobias, eating disorders, OCD
Limitations
Cannot explain all behaviours neglects influence of genetics and biology and neglects
influence of cognition.
Are not effective for all disorders e.g. schizophrenia.
Therapy sometimes raises ethical issues.
, Cognitive approach to psychopathology
Assumptions: behaviour is the direct result of faulty thinking. Assumes that abnormal behaviour is
a direct result of faulty thinking.
Ellis’s (1962) ABC model
The ABC model claims disorders begin with (A) activating event. Leading to (B) belief. Leading to
a consequence (C). irrational beliefs produce maladaptive consequences.
Becks (1963) cognitive triad
A cognitive triad of negative beliefs was said to be linked to depression. The negative views were
of:
Themselves
The world
The future
Changing faulty cognitions
Therapies assume that we can treat disorders by eliminating/changing the faulty beliefs/thoughts.
used to treat depression/anxiety. Therapist and client identify faulty cognitions and tries to prove
incorrect.
Cognitive therapies
Hardiness training developed by Kobasa and Maddi (1977). Based on idea that the more hardy
people get, the less stressed they are likely to get.
Three steps:
Focusing relieving stressful encounters self-improvement
Stress inoculation training Meichenbaum’s SIT also has three steps:
Conceptualisation skill acquisition and rehearsal application and follow through
Strengths
Useful approach considers thoughts/beliefs
Successful therapies
Allows patient to take control
Lots of research e.g. Gustafson (1992) showed faulty thinking process
Weaknesses
May be consequence of disorder rather than cause
May be long and costly
Treatments not always effective
Symptoms could relapse
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