Summary of 4 papers for the exam:
Sowa and Zachman (article, 1992)
Kappelmann and Zachamn (article, 2013)
Groot, Smits, and Kuipers (article, 2006)
Haki and Legner (article 2013)
The picture approach is used as a method to redesign the IS portfolios in large organizations.
Organizations have developed increasingly complex portfolios of information systems to support
business processes. The question arises if it could be feasible to migrate to a single system complex.
The picture approach method tries to find relatively quick (within several months) practical answers
to the migration question. The picture takes represents the system complexes and form the basis for
communication.
IT is perceived as: Information systems (databases and processing functionalities), IT infrastructure
(data networks, operating systems, hardware, IT skills) and IT policies (procedures for users and IT
managers, IT coordination, education and support).
Previous research found that in order to achieve good merger results, it is necessary that the
business ambitions are aligned to the IT integration objectives and the IT integration method.
Solving complexity in processes
Complexity can be seen as an objective phenomenon, when it is defined by elements or functions. In
this case, the objective is to reduce the number of systems functions. Complexity is also subjective
and can be seen as the perceived effort that is required to understand and cope with the system.
Subjective complexity can be reduced by improving communication between the actors involved,
aiming for shared views on the system complex (this is an extra challenge in case of a merger).
Objective complexity can be reduced by reducing the number of systems and the subjective
complexity can be reduced by improving communication between actors. Also analytic hierarchy
planning (AHP) and the accompanying Expert Choice software is used to support communication
between managers and reduce subjective complexity (and support decision making)
Method to redesign the IS portfolio
The picture approach was developed in order to map out system complexes for business and IT
managers. The picture approach aims to reduce subjective complexity as perceived by the managers
involved, followed by a reduction in the objective complexity of system complexes. Secondly, the
picture approach should clarify the existing system complexes (IST) as well as present proposals for
the future situation (SOLL).
The picture approach can be positioned in the strategic alignment model. It:
- Reduces complexity in the IT domain by creating a clear overview of applications
- Reduce complexity in the business domain by creating insight into business processes
- Link the applications to business processes to improve decision making on the system
complex by business and IT managers both at the operational and strategic level.
- We aim to reduce complexity from a business and IS perspective by relating systems and
applications to business processes and objectives.
The analysis of a system complex can be regarded as a stepwise process of peeling away layers of
complexity. During this process, managers involved gain insight into the issues at hand.
, The approach consists of the so-called pictures and the additional information in the form of fact
sheets of the IT architecture and information systems. The pictures and fact sheets are used to
improve decision making in the system complex.
A picture is an image of the organizational processes that maps out the functions of the various
information systems within processes. A picture visualizes the information flows that run through the
organization and the role of information systems in these flows. Any physical documents or tapes
used in the process are also mapped out.
Different arrows indicate different types of interfaces. We distinguish between direct interfaces, less
intensive automated interfaces and manual interfaces. These interfaces imply larger complexity of
the system complex and the reduction issue.
An explicit description of the pictures of each system complex are given in fact sheets. They include
descriptions of five main aspects that are the same for all system complexes:
- Systems functionality: a description of the key feature of a system in a language mastered by
all stakeholders. Functional wealth is used to designate the functionality of each individual
system.
- Process support: The level of support; the division of tasks between the systems and the
users. Process efficiency and process control.
- Costs and benefits: Estimating the costs of migration and maintenance
- Risks of the system complex: Risks of migration failures and the risks of using technologies
The production of the picture is not easy. It requires knowledge of the concept and skills, but most of
all experience in complex accounting, control and information systems, knowledge of IT and
information management and the ability to constantly switch between low-level concrete solutions
and high-level general and conceptual solutions. The small details are important for the decision
making.
The picture project and process are just as important as the images contained in the pictures and
their related fact sheets. The involvement in the study leads to a reduction in subjective complexity
and shared meaning. This is a prerequisite for a decision that is supported by all: the persons
involved know about the course of the decision-making process and support the decision taken
based on the knowledge they have gained in the process. This is already a result itself. The project
group was supported by the core team which is made up of different experts from various
departments (multi-disciplinary). Teams are formed to draft the fact sheets for each system. Where
necessary, the teams are supported or supervised by outside experts. Photoshoots are always led by
outside experts. A typical project spans approximately 10 weeks in total.
The picture process in four steps: These steps can run parallel and can be repeated.
1. The outside experts organize a series of consecutive meetings over a short period of time.
The photo shoots are intensive meetings that frequently result in the conclusion that a
process functions differently than the team members thought. The first photo shoot leads to
a conceptual model of the key actors, documents, applications and business processes. The
second and third photo shoots zoom in on each part of the business process and identify
precise relations between processes, actors, documents and systems. The final shoot shows a
more detailed interaction between the systems, actors and documents.
2. The second step is to show the draft picture to the core team. The presentation of pictures
and fact sheets usually results in changes and additions.
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