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Summary Medieval History 1
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This is a summary of chapter 1 to 7 of the book “Medieval Europe”
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Samenvatting Middeleeuwen II - Radboud
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MEDIEVAL HISTORY ISummary
Chapter 1 – Romans, Christians, and Barbarians
Important terms
Christendom Literally, a Christian realm or imperium
Christianum, a term used to describe the lands
ruled by Charlemagne (r. 768-814). In later
centuries, “Christendom” had considerable
ideological power for many medieval
Christians, describing a territory roughly
equivalent to “Europe” and expressing their
vision of a unified Christian society within
those lands. Historians today distinguish
between Western Christendom and Eastern
Christendom (the Byzantine Empire).
Domestic proselytization A term coined by the historian Jane
Schulenburg to describe conversions to
Christianity that were accomplished by the
marriages – especially royal marriages – of
Christian women to pagan men.
Papacy The office of the pope.
Church In a general sense, simply a place of worship. In
a specific sense (and designated in this book by
capitalization), “Church” refers to the
established institution of the medieval Church,
headed by the pope in Rome.
Feudalism A modern term coined to describe the political,
military, and social customs that maintained the
power of the military elite (“those who fight”) in
the Central and Later Middle Ages. See also
manorialism.
Barbarians In a general sense, a Greek term for those who
spoke non-Greek languages. In a specific sense,
the term used in this book to designate the
frontier tribes that eventually settled within the
borders of the Roman Empire – that is
Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Franks, Saxons,
Angles, Jutes and the like. See also Germanic.
Mystery religions Ancient religions and cults characterized by a
promise of mystical revelation (hence
“mystery”) and an emphasis on individual
spiritual development and salvation.
Sacrament A religious ceremony that confers God’s grace
on the recipient. At the Fourth Lateran Council
in 1215, the sacraments of Western Christianity
were fixed at seven: (1) baptism, (2)
confirmation, (3) communion, (4) penance, (5)
marriage, (6) extreme unction, and (7)
ordination. Because ordained priests (see
1
, secular clergy) administer the sacraments and
because the sacraments are a route to
salvation, the sacramental basis of medieval
Christianity was a critical part of the
institutional power of its Church. See also anti-
clericalism, excommunication, and interdict.
Eucharist The Christian sacrament that commemorates
the Last Supper. By the doctrine of
transubstantiation, approved by the Fourth
Lateran Council in 1215, the eucharistic bread
(the Host) and wine were transformed, during
the mass, into the body and blood of Christ.
This miracle is celebrated in the feast of Corpus
Christi (“Body of Christ”), established in the 13 th
century and celebrated about two months after
Easter.
Saints In a general sense, a holy person. In a specific
sense, a holy person formally recognized as
such by a religious authority. As a rule, no living
person is a saint; sanctity is a post-modern
recognition of holy life.
Hagiography The writing of saints’ lives, a popular genre of
Christian literature.
Clergy See secular clergy and regular clergy. See also
laity.
Laity In general, a person without professional
knowledge or interest. As specifically used in
medieval history, a term for Christians not
professionally active in the Church. For Church
professionals, see regular clergy and secular
clergy.
Bishops From Greek for “overseer”, a bishop is the chief
priest of a district (or diocese). Exercising
authority over all the priests therein and
sometimes monasteries, too, the bishop is
responsible for pastoral care and moral
correction.
Pope The bishop of Rome, considered by Catholic
Christians to be the successor to St. Peter and
the true head of all Christians.
Councils In a specific context of medieval history, this
term refers to general meetings of Church
officers. The earliest Church councils, such as
the Council of Nicaea in 325, clarified basic.
matters of Christian doctrine. In the Central
Middle Ages, councils were effective tools of
papal monarchy, especially the Fourth Lateran
Council of 1215. In the Later Middle Ages,
councils briefly presented a constitutional
challenge to papal authority (see conciliar
movement). See also synod.
2
,Paganism In a general sense, a pagan is an irreligious
person, especially as applied by medieval
Christians to Jews and Muslims. See also infidel.
In a specific sense, a pagan is a follower of a
polytheistic faith, such as the traditional deities
of Rome.
Neoplatonism An elaboration of Plato’s theory of forms
especially associated with the 3rd century
philosopher Plotinus (205-270), who taught of
one infinite and unknowable God who can be
approached only through mystical experience.
To Neoplatonists, the human soul should seek
to return, via mysticism, to the perfect oneness
of God.
Mysticism Direct contact between humanity and divinity.
Christian mystics attempted to initiate such
experiences through prayer, fasting,
contemplation, and other means. In medieval
Islam, Sufi mystics led the way. In Judaism,
Kabbalism was the main route to mystical
union.
Orthodoxy In a general sense, “orthodox” is simply a
“correct opinion” as judged by a designated
religious authority. See also heresy. In a specific
sense (and indicated by capitalization),
“Orthodox” signifies the Eastern Orthodox
Church, which embraces self-governing
branches in Greece, Russia, Serbia and
elsewhere.
Heretic A person who diverges from established
religious belief and then persists in that
divergence. (Note: Jews and Muslims, as non-
Christians, were not heretics in the eyes of the
medieval Church and therefore were outside
the jurisdiction of inquisitors. To medieval
Christians, Jews and Muslims were infidels.)
Arian Early Christian heretics who conceived of the
Trinity as three unequal entities. Not to be
confused with the racist concept of an Aryan
race.
Catholic In a general sense, “catholic” simply means
“universal”. In a specific sense, it designates
those medieval Christians who looked to the
pope in Rome for guidance (since the pope
claimed authority over all Christians). Eastern
Orthodox Christians rejected the universal
claims of the Roman pope, a division that
hardened in 1054 when Pope Leo IX (r. 1049-
1054) and Patriarch Michael Cerularius (r. 1043-
1058) excommunicated each other. “Catholic”
would take on new meaning when the Western
3
, Christians divided under pressure from
“Protestant” reformers in the 16th century, but
throughout the Middle Ages, “Catholic”
describes the faith of all mainstream Christians
in the medieval West.
Ecclesiastical Related to the Church as an institutional body.
Vulgate Bible A Latin translation of the Bible produced by St.
Jerome (c. 340-420), the Vulgate remained the
standard text throughout the Middle Ages.
Asceticism A lifestyle in which one avoids sensual
pleasures, such as sex, physical comfort or
overindulgence in food, usually for religious
reasons.
Canon law The law of the Church.
Germanic In a modern sense, the people, language, and
state of modern Germany. In medieval history,
these terms are sometimes used to designate
the frontier tribes that eventually settled within
the borders of the Roman Empire – that is,
Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Franks, Saxons,
Angles, Jutes, and the like. But Romans rarely
described these tribes as “Germanic”,
preferring barbarian (the term used in this
book) instead. Also, these tribes did not always
share a common language that was the
ancestor of modern German, and their states
did not evolve into the modern Federal
Republic of Germany. See also the Holy Roman
Empire.
Artisan A skilled craftsperson, such as a goldsmith or
shoemaker.
Feud A prolonged and deadly dispute, usually
between two families or clans.
Wergild Compensation paid for offenses either to the
victim or the victim’s family. This form of
dispute resolution was common among the
barbarian tribes.
Comitatus A barbarian war band, led by a chief to whom
men owed absolute loyalty. The personal bonds
of the comitatus were one precursor to
feudalism.
Custom A practice that has legal force because of long
use. Custom-based law, as opposed to statute
law, took its force from the power of past
practice – that is, what had been done in the
past should be done in the present. See also
common law.
Compurgation Proof of innocence by oath swearing
Trial by ordeal A form of trial, derived from barbarian law, that
relied on divine intervention to determine guilt
or innocence.
4
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