Inhoud
Chapter 1...................................................................................................................................8
1.1 Define the term group.....................................................................................................8
1.2. Define task interaction and relationship interaction.......................................................8
1.3. Diagram the following types of interdependence: symmetrical (mutual), hierarchical,
and sequential....................................................................................................................................9
1.4. Compare and contrast these four basic types of groups: primary groups, social groups,
collectives, and categories..................................................................................................................9
1.5. Summarize Campbell’s theory of entitativity................................................................10
1.6. Explain the significance of Sherif’s study of norms for resolving issues of the reality of
groups raised by Allport....................................................................................................................11
Chapter 2.................................................................................................................................12
2.1. Define and give examples of observational measures of group dynamics....................12
2.2. Compare and contrast (a) participant, covert, overt, and structured observational
methods; (b) quantitative and qualitative measurement methods; (c) observational and self-report
measures..........................................................................................................................................12
2.3. Use a structured observational system (e.g., IPA) to describe the behaviors observed in
a group.............................................................................................................................................14
2.4. Use sociometry to describe the structure of a group....................................................15
2.5. Define and give an example of the following basic research designs: case study,
experimental, and nonexperimental (correlational).........................................................................17
Case study:.......................................................................................................................17
1
, Correlational studies:.......................................................................................................17
Experimental studies:.......................................................................................................18
2.6. Debate the relative strengths and weaknesses of experimental and nonexperimental
designs..............................................................................................................................................18
Case study........................................................................................................................18
Correlational study (non-experimental)...........................................................................19
Experimental study..........................................................................................................19
2.7. Discuss the ethical issues raised by research on human groups and examine steps to
take to minimize those concerns......................................................................................................20
Chapter 3.................................................................................................................................20
3.1. Review the evidence that suggests humans have a fundamental need to belong to
groups...............................................................................................................................................20
3.2. Describe how humans react when excluded (or ostracized) from a group...................21
3.3. Summarize the three stages of the temporal need-threat model of ostracism............22
3.4. Summarize an evolutionary theory’s explanation of the need to belong in humans,
being sure to describe the survival advantages and disadvantages offered by sociality..................23
3.5. Compare the sociometer model of self-esteem to a more traditional view of self-
esteem..............................................................................................................................................24
3.6. Discuss the physiological consequences of social exclusion..........................................24
3.7. Describe the minimal intergroup situation examined by Tajfel and Turner and identify
the implications of this paradigm for understanding group processes.............................................25
Chapter 4.................................................................................................................................27
2
, 4.1. Summarize the impact of personal factors and situational factors on group formation.
..........................................................................................................................................................27
4.2. Use the five factor model of personality to make predictions about the relationship
between personality and engagement in groups.............................................................................27
4.3. List the three key social motives that influence the tendency to join a group..............28
4.4. Describe the typical actions displayed by individuals who are socially anxious when in
group settings...................................................................................................................................28
4.5. Use the theory of attachment proposed by developmental psychologist to explain
individual differences in joining groups............................................................................................28
4.6. Summarize the methods used by Schachter to study affiliation in groups....................29
4.7. Define, and given an example, of each of the principles of interpersonal attraction:
proximity principle, elaboration principle, similarity principle, complementarity principle,
reciprocity principle, minimax principle...........................................................................................29
Chapter 5.................................................................................................................................30
5.1. Synthesize diverse perspectives on cohesion in a multicomponent, multilevel model.30
5.2. Describe the following five aspects of cohesion: social cohesion, task cohesion,
collective cohesion, emotional cohesion, and structural cohesion...................................................31
5.3. Summarize the methods used by Muzafer and Carolyn Sherif in their study of group
development in summer camps, and note the implications of their findings for understanding
cohesion...........................................................................................................................................32
5.4. Describe the basic assumptions of the following theories of group cohesion: Hogg’s
social identity theory, Freud’s replacement hypothesis, identify fusion theory, and relational
cohesion theory................................................................................................................................32
5.5. Summarize Tuckman’s theory of group development..................................................33
3
, 5.6. Explain the relationship between cohesion and group productivity.............................33
5.7. Use the concept of norms to explain when cohesion increases a group’s productivity
and when it does not........................................................................................................................33
Chapter 10...............................................................................................................................34
10.1 Summarize Zajonc’s (1965) model of social facilitation of performance......................34
10.2. Compare and contrast Zajonc’s drive theory, Cottrell’s evaluation apprehension
model, distraction conflict theory, and social orientation theory.....................................................34
10.3. Describe the early work of Ringelmann (1913), describe the effect that bears his
name, and identify the two key factors to contribute to that effect................................................35
10.4. Summarize the methods used by Latané, Williams, and Harkins (1979) to identify the
relative impact of social loafing and coordination problems on the Ringelmann effect...................36
10.5. Develop a list of recommendations that, if followed, would minimize social loafing in
groups...............................................................................................................................................36
10.6. Describe the Karau-Williams (1993) collective effort model (CEM) and use it to
explain social loafing and social compensation................................................................................37
10.7. Describe the factors that can undermine the performance of groups that are working
on a disjunctive task.........................................................................................................................37
10.8. Evaluate the effectiveness of brainstorming, and offer recommendations for
enhancing creativity in groups..........................................................................................................38
Chapter 12...............................................................................................................................40
12.1. List the basic ways that groups make decisions about the issues under consideration
(social decision schemes) and describe the strengths and limitations of each method...................40
Orientation:......................................................................................................................40
4
, Discussion:.......................................................................................................................41
Making the decision:........................................................................................................43
Averaging: Statisticized decisions.....................................................................................43
Voting: Plurality decisions................................................................................................43
Reaching consensus: Unanimous decisions:....................................................................44
Delegating: Sharing decisions..........................................................................................44
12.2. Describe the methods used by Stasser and his colleagues in studying the shared
information bias, and identify factors that promote and retard this tendency................................44
12.3. Discuss cognitive limitations that interfere with good decision making, including sins
of commission, sins of omission, and heuristics...............................................................................46
12.4. Compare and contrast current theories that explain polarization (persuasive-
arguments theory, social comparison theory, and social decision scheme theory).........................47
12.5. Apply the theory of groupthink to a well-known decision-making group, such as the
group of advisors responsible for planning the Bay of Pigs operation..............................................48
12.6. Critique Janis’s theory of groupthink..........................................................................49
Chapter 13...............................................................................................................................50
13.1. Describe how reactance and errors in misperceiving others’ motivations contribute to
conflict escalation.............................................................................................................................50
13.2. Use the concepts of (a) coalition formation and (b) emotional contagion to explain
conflict escalation in groups.............................................................................................................51
13.3. Distinguish between these three forms of negotiation: distributive, integrative, hard,
soft, and principled...........................................................................................................................51
5
, 13.4. Describe the mixed and often conflicting evidence pertaining to the value of
communication as a means of resolving conflict in groups..............................................................52
Chapter 7.................................................................................................................................53
7.1. Compare and contrast majority influence and minority influence................................53
7.2. Describe the experimental paradigm used by Asch (1955) in his studies of conformity.
..........................................................................................................................................................53
7.3. Describe the experimental paradigm used by Moscovici in his studies of minority
influence and draw out the empirical implications for his conversion theory of minority influence.
..........................................................................................................................................................54
7.4. Use Latané’s theory of dynamic social impact to explain both majority and minority
influence...........................................................................................................................................55
7.5. Discuss individuals’ reactions to nonconformists, focusing specifically on (a) patterns of
communication with the mode, slider, and deviant (Schachter, 1951) and (b) attraction to the
mode, slider, and deviant.................................................................................................................56
Chapter 9.................................................................................................................................57
9.1. Summarize the two sets of core leadership behaviors described in the task-
relationship model and apply this distinction to studies of sex differences in leadership................57
9.2. Summarize the relationship between individuals’ characteristics—including personal
qualities (e.g., personality, experience) and demographic background (age, weight)—and
leadership emergence......................................................................................................................57
9.3. Explain which counts more when a leader is chosen: quality or quantity of
participation.....................................................................................................................................58
9.4. Compare and contrast these theories of leadership emergence process: implicit
leadership theory, social identity theory, social role theory, terror management theory, and
6
,evolutionary theory..........................................................................................................................59
9.5. Graphically summarize the basic assumptions of the contingency theory of leadership
(Fiedler, 1978) and discuss how the theory can be applied to train leaders....................................60
9.6. Summarize the methods used and results obtained by Lewin, Lippitt, and White (1937)
in their study of directive, participatory, and laissez-faire leaders...................................................61
9.7. List and briefly describe the components of transactional and transformational
leadership identified by Bass............................................................................................................62
9.8. Examine sex differences in leadership, including leadership tendencies of men and
women, biases in acceptance of men and women leaders, and differences in effectiveness..........62
Chapter 14...............................................................................................................................62
14.1. Marshall evidence the supports, and runs counter to, an evolutionary explanation for
intergroup conflict............................................................................................................................62
14.2. Define the ingroup-outgroup bias, in general, and contrast it with ethnocentrism,
ingroup positivity, outgroup negativity, and double-standard thinking...........................................63
14.3. Describe the cognitive factors that sustain conflict between groups, including the
outgroup homogeneity bias, the law of small numbers, the group attribution error, the ultimate
attribution error, the linguistic intergroup bias, and stereotyping...................................................63
14.4. Discuss the role of emotions in intergroup conflict, drawing on the stereotype
content model of intergroup emotions............................................................................................64
14.5. Summarize the methods used and results obtained by Tajfel, Turner, and their
colleagues in their studies of the minimal group situation, and use those findings to draw
conclusions about the inevitability of intergroup conflict................................................................65
14.6. Summarize the general contact hypothesis and name four conditions that increase
the effectiveness of contact as an agent of conflict resolution........................................................66
7
,Chapter 1
1.1 Define the term group.
Two or more individuals who are connected by and within social relationships. Social
relations that link members to one another, and connection in socially meaningful ways. When some
type of bond links the members to one another and to the group itself.
1.2. Define task interaction and relationship interaction.
Task interaction: The conjointly adjusted actions of group members that pertain to the
groups projects, tasks, and goals.
Relationship interaction (socioemotional interaction): The conjointly adjusted actions of
group members that relate to or influence the nature and strength of the emotional and
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,interpersonal bonds within the group, including both sustaining (social support, consideration) and
undermining actions (criticism, conflict)
1.3. Diagram the following types of interdependence:
symmetrical (mutual), hierarchical, and sequential.
1.4. Compare and contrast these four basic types of groups:
primary groups, social groups, collectives, and categories.
Primary groups: Small, intimate, close, even when not together at the moment, they feel part
of the group. Often become member involuntarily (family), but can also become member by
interacting in significant, meaningful ways for a prolonged period of time. They transform individuals
into social beings, protect members from harm, care for them when they are ill, and provide them
with shelter and sustenance. They also create the connection between the individual and the society
at large.
Secondary (social) groups: When we began to associate with wider range of people in less
intimate, more public settings. Larger and more formally organized than primary groups, and
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, memberships tend to be shorter and less emotionally involving. Boundaries are also more
permeable. Do not demand as much commitment as primary groups.
Collectives: Emerge when people are drawn together by something, but end when the
experience ends. Larger, less intricately connected. Also includes social movements of individuals
who, though dispersed over a wide area, display common shifts in opinion or actions. Members are
joined by their common interest or shared actions, but often ow little allegiance to the group.
Social categories: Collection of individuals who are similar in some way. If a category has no
social implications, then it only describes individuals who share a feature in common. But if these
categories set in motion personal or interpersonal processes, a category may be transformed into a
highly influential group. Members share a common identity with one another, and this perception of
themselves as members of the same group is called ‘social identity’. Social categories can also
influence perceptions of people outside of the groups, in the form of stereotypes. Social categories
tend to create divisions between people.
1.5. Summarize Campbell’s theory of entitativity.
Entitativity: Does the group look like a group? According to Campbell, entitativity is
influenced by similarity, proximity, and common fate, as well as perceptual cues like pragnanz (good
form) and permeability. Campbell predicts that you would intuitively notice of four people have
something in common, like whether they wear the same shirt, read a book, or are all laughing. You’d
also notice it by proximity, since when people stand together more closely they’re more easily
perceived as a group. Common fate means that they move or act in the same way (like all running).
The Thomas Theorem suggests that if individuals think a group is real, the group will have
important interpersonal consequences for those in the group and those who are observing it. Groups
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