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AantekeningenPsychology and AI
Lecture 1
The psychology of AI: A historical perspective
God and Golem
If you search for the concept of a thinking thing, you’ll come to golem. It is a thing
that is blown in with the energy of life, and then starts acting autonomously. It is
seen as a thing that you think of when you think of AI.
• Probably first idea of artificial life
• The idea that life can be put into a clay figure
The thing that lives
• Humans have always fantasized of creating sentient creatures themselves
• Golems, Frankenstein’s monster, Pinocchio are archetypical
• The thing-that-lives generates high arousal, either positive (enthusiasm) or negative
(anxiety)
• This has always been true, and is still visible in e.g., popular media
→ It is seen as something that people either love or are afraid of! It creates two opposites.
The Uncanny Valley
• The anxiety that robots can elicit is illustrated by Japanese robotics
expert Masahiro Mori’s uncanny valley
• The likeability of robots increases as they resemble humans more
• But if they get too close, they are very scary
→ First you see a video of funny AI, a dancing bird, then a cute robot
resembling a human, etc. But as the robots’ resemblance goes too much
towards humans, we start to see them as scary. But after, as they start to
look almost the same as humans, we don’t really care anymore.
• The freaky part, the time in which you think it’s creepy, is the
uncanny valley.
Robot abuse
• Human beings have a very strong tendency to
anthropomorphize
• I.e., they assign human qualities to anything that behaves like
a human (and to things that don’t)
• The famous abuse of the Atlas droid by Boston Dynamics
illustrates this
→ You see a robot moving toward a box, trying to pick it up, but its constantly being bullied by a
human. The human is moving the box away from the robot and pushing the robot over. Here you see
how we anthropomorphize with a robot, since we attach emotions to the robot. We can empathize
with its situation because we see human qualities.
,Thinking tools
Extending the mind
Extending the mind
• The Sumerians (who lived in what is now Iraq) invent thenowabacus
• The Sumerians (who lived in what is
Iraq) invent the abacus
• The abacus “outsources” mental
• The abacus “outsources” mental processes, just like e.g.,• Asnotebooks do
processes, just like e.g. notebooks do
such, we extend our mind and
• As such, we extend our mind and make it more powerful• Our species has gradually extended
make it more powerful
its mind to a level that was
• Our species has gradually extended its mind to a level that was unimaginable
unimaginable for most of history…
for most of history...
Extending the mind
• The first idea of a machine being able to do intellectual work is the
Mechanical Turk (looked like a human playing)
• An 18th century apparatus that could play a strong game of chess
• However, this was an illusion: the mechanical clockwork inside hid a dwarf
who was actually playing
→ But the idea of an intelligent machine was there...!!!!!!
The Analytical Engine
Lady Lovelace (1815-1852)
• Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine allows the user to specify general
calculations
o First idea of a computer
• Ada Lovelace is the first person to write a specification to generate Bernoulli
numbers: an algorithm
• These specifications constitute the first software program, and Lady Lovelace
is therefore the first programmer
The first computer
• Babbage’s Analytical Engine was never built
• In 1878, the British Association for the Advancement of Science described the
engine as "a marvel of mechanical ingenuity” but recommended against
constructing it.
o Steampunk genre based on the alternate reality in which it was built
and not recommended against
• It was not until 1935 that the first computer saw the light...
Z3, the first computer, built by Konrad Zuse in Germany in 1935 →
The age of machines
• The industrial revolution makes the machine mainstream
• In factories, machines start to take over human tasks
• The idea that one could rebuild a human mechanically takes hold
• The idea of a robot (after the Slavic Robota, which means “forced labourer”) is born
• However, this is not yet linked to the computer
→ Short video of the first robot being introduced into film
,Digital Computers
Alan Turing (1912- 1954)
• English mathematician who cracks the Enigma code of the Nazis
• Turing shows how to make a very generic “machine” to do calculations: the Turing Machine
• Proves that such a machine can handle all computable functions
• This also includes all standard logic: the Turing machine thus can “think” a bit
o → First person to make a connection between machines and thought. He was the
first person to come up with an explanation of how humans think!!!!!
The Turing machine
Turing Machine, by Mike Davey,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E3keLeMwfHY
For a Turing Machine simulation, see
http://turingmaschine.klickagent.ch/einband/?&lang=en-3_+_2
A very simple machine that can read the tape, remove a number on tape, or rewrite the tape. It’s a
digital computer, only working with 0 and 1’s. It works on a program (an algorithm), that tells the
machine what to do when it encounters a specific state. The algorithm thus tells the machine when
to remove a number and write a 0/1 → This can be calculated with Turing Machine simulations. This
is in the basis what all our computers do.
Boolean algebra (= symbolic AI)
→ Why are people so scared that machines / computers will start to think? It is because at the very
elementary level, the computer implements thought; it implements thinking processes (at the very
basic level).
• Mathematical implementation of logic
• True sentences are given the value “1”, false sentences the value “0”
• In logic, the truth of compositions (“p and q”) is a function of the truth of the elementary
statements (“p”, “q”)
• In Boolean algebra the truth value of compositions is calculated by mathematical operations
on the elementary parts
• E.g.: the value of “p and q” equals the value of p multiplied by the value of q
• “p and q” is thus only true (“1”) if p and q are both true (both “1”), because only then you get
1x1=1 (in all other cases you get 0)
, So...
At one level you have logic, and we are
able to combine things in our mind to
reason. Thus, you can reason why some
things are true or false (All humans are
mortal; Socrates is a human, etc.)
→ How is it possible, assuming that our
brain is responsible, that we can do this?
→ This logical derivation can be
represented as a computation. That means
that the thoughts we have can be
represented by computational processes.
If we implement this process into a computer, then it basically does that same thing that our brain
does when we solve these kinds of reasonings → A Turing Machine can do this (logic, computation,
implementation)
1. Logic can be thoughts, structured reasoning as laid down in logic
2. This logic can be represented as a computation (Boolean algebra)
3. This computation can be done by a universal Turing Machine, it can be implemented
→ This tape is thusly a thinking thing
Nobody thinks there’s somebody at home in the tape, but this machine implements a process that is
‘thinking’ → This is roughly the Computational Theory of Mind
The Computational Theory of Mind
• Thinking consists of computations on representations
• These computational processes are realized in the human brain (somehow) just like logic is
realized in digital computers
• Therefore, mental processes are software that runs on the brain’s hardware
→ During this time people working in AI, believed that we were kind of working like computers. Our
brain ran our thoughts and computations like a computer runs a logic.
Can machines think?
When will there be a time in which we cannot recognize artificial intelligence as
artificial anymore?
→ Siri being used as help for people with Alzheimer’s who are lonely. They cannot
understand that Siri is AI.
The Turing Test
• Turing (1950) asks: what if we had a computer that we cannot distinguish
from a human being?
• Turing: in that case you have to conclude that the computer has consciousness
→ This is called the Turing test
Argument against the Turing test: There are some things that cannot be proven with mathematics
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