Summary of the History: Europe course taught in the first year and second semester of the BA International Studies at Leiden University. It contains an extensive summary of lectures 1 to 6.
What and where is Europe?
It is hard to define what and where Europe is since it depends on the way you look at it
(geographically, culturally, economically, politically).
It is not entirely known where the name Europe comes from. It is often connected with a
Venetian Princess from the Middle East area (Lebanon), who was abducted by Zeus, who took
the shape of a steer, as seen in the Image below. Europe was named by Ancient Greek.
In a geographical sense, Europe is a continent, as seen in the Image below.
In the Image below Europe is presented in the International Studies. Russia, Ukraine, and
Belarus are not seen as Europe in IS, though geographically they are. Greenland is part of
Europe in IS.
What defines Europe is the Ancient Greek World, shown in the Image below in red.
In the Image below, the growth of the Roman Empire is seen.
, 2
Charles The Great:
In the Middle Ages/Early Medieval Times, Charles the Great played a big role in European
history. In the image below, the Slavik tribes, the Austria-Hungarian tribes, the (Christian)
Orthodox Holy Roman Empire, and the Islamic states can be seen.
In the Image below, the Holy Roman Empire can be seen. Charles the Great’ Empire lies in the
Holy Roman Empire, which shifts around Europe from 962 to 1200 to 1806.
In a cultural sense, Europe is based on the Renaissance, as seen in the Image below. On the
map, the Renaissance started in Northern Italy, and spread to London (Oxford), Belgium
(Brussels), France (Paris & Strasbourg), Spain (Madrid), which were influenced by the
Renaissance way of thinking.
The left Image shows the Spanish Empire around 1800. The right Image shows the French
Empire.
In an economic sense, Europe is characterized by the Industrial Revolution that caused its
economic domination in the world. In the Image below, the industrial regions can be seen, such
as Britain, parts of Spain and France, and in Central Eastern Europe.
, 3
In a political sense, Europe can be seen through the European Union (EU), as seen in the Image
below.
Europe is a context-bound concept, it has:
- A historical meaning
- A cultural meaning
- An economic meaning
- A political meaning
Nationalism as an Idea
After the Soviet Union fell in 1990, it was believed that it was the end of history, that there
were no more important ideological differences/conflicts that would explain the further
development of humankind. It was later clear that this was not the case with the Rise of
Nationalism in the Balkans.
What is Nationalism?
Nationalism =
Is the belief that a people who share a common language, history, and culture should constitute
an independent nation, free of foreign domination. (Thus having their own state)
> A nation is a people who share a common language, history, and culture.
Also: The strong belief that the interests of a particular nation-state are of primary importance.
(The belief that your own nation/people are more important than another nation)
> The WW1, WW2, populism, is associated with this belief.
Dual Revolution
McKay (Book): What is fundamental in understanding the history of the world, mostly centered
around Europe, is the concept of the Dual Revolution. The Modern World (1800) can be
perceived through the Dual Revolution.
Dual Revolution:
1. Industrial Revolution
, 4
- Created a whole new organization of society.
- It explains the decline in the agricultural lifestyle, the rise of the middle classes
who became powerful due to the rise of the industry, the development of the
workers, the growth of urbanization, and control of means of production.
- The Industrial Revolution is crucial to explaining how the modern world has
come about.
2. Political Revolution
- New groups in society are asking for political power.
- New ideas about how states should be organized.
- The concept of the nation became popular.
- French Revolution
- The nation in the French Revolution was not based on culture or
language, but on the people that were the start of a state (mostly the
people who are paying taxes). In the French Revolution, they talk about
all people being equal, and that power is an instrument of humans.
Equal in a sense that everyone should have a say and can be part of the
state. This Revolution was however not based on nationalism, but on
access to political power and equality: ‘Liberty, Fraternity, and Equality’.
- For the American Revolution, it was said ‘No taxation without representation’.
- Johann Herder comes up with the idea that language is a fundamental concept
to identify and connect oneself with a group. Groups of people that speak the
same language constitute a specific and identifiable group. These groups should
be forming states. Language should be the basis of nation states.
> Herder’s view is very romantic. This romanticism explains why other poets
start to fight for Greek independence.
> These two revolutions are parallel to one another. They happened at the same time, there is
not necessarily a direct cause or relationship between them.
- Example: France was not industrialized when the French Revolution broke out.
On the other hand, a middle class becoming wealthier asking for political power
does have a relationship.
→ There is a debate on when nationalism starts. (See below)
The Origins of Nationalism
Modernists (constructivists) vs Primordialists
- Modernists:
- Nationalism is a construction of the 19th century. It is people in power using
certain existing shared languages/culture/history/bonds to create power.
- A nation in the 19th century was constructed using ancient aspects.
- > Example: In an Austria-Hungarian Empire that consists of numerous groups,
Romanians are a bit eccentric on the periphery (and powerful in Romania), but
they do not have access to political power in the state/Empire. They are
submerged into the state, as this power is ruled by Germanic and Hungarian
people. These Romanians are not powerful and they use the fact that they share
the Romanian language with common people to mobilize and to create
independence for the Empire.
- The 18th-century cultural interest is used for political demands. Some groups
shared the same language, but there was no unity, everybody spoke different
dialects, and people did not feel a shared bond with other groups.
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