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Summary Introduction to human neuroimaging
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Full summary of the book 'introduction to human neuroimaging' for the course 'cognitive neuropsychology' at UVT Psychology.
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Very extensive (142 pages!) summary of Cognitive Neuropsychology
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Chapter 1 IntroductionCentral nervous system (CNS): brain
Peripheral nervous system (PNS): neurons and nerve processes outside of CNS
Cerebrum: forebrain, has 2 symmetrical halves; hemispheres. Responsible for conscious behaviors.
Brainstem: enfolded by cerebrum, structures responsible for unconscious behaviors.
Cerebellum: specialized in coordinating and learning, ‘mini-brain’
Locked-in syndrome: brain intact, but with its nerve fiber pathways that produce movement inactivated.
Minimally conscious state (MCS): unable to perform certain movements
Deep brain stimulation: wire electrodes in brainstem administer small electrical current. Repairment
for MCS.
Aristotle: psyche(mind/memory) leaving means death of the body. = mentalism
Descartes: mind and body interact via pineal gland (middle of the brain) (=untrue)
Darwin: materialism (all animal species are related their brain and behavior is similar)
We are only related to apes through a common ancestor.
We are the only surviving species of the homo erectus (rechtopstaand)
first brain cells 700 million years old, first brain 250 million years old, human brain 200.000 years old.
Evolution of nervous system: -neurons and muscles; origins in single-cell organisms
-nerve net; neurons that receive sensory info
-bilateral symmetry; organization of nervous system
-segmentation; spinal chord and brain display segmentation
-ganglia; cluster of neurons, resemble primitive brains
-spinal chord
-brain
The bigger a brain, the better. (generally, not (men/Einstein)-[perhaps amount of connection is best]
Our brain is biggest of all animals, due to social behavior (fruit/fire) + cooling system (for metabolism)
Ageing/diseases decrease of brain-size?
Brain’s plasticity = ability to change
IQ for intelligence
Culture affects brain
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,Chapter 2 Nervous system (?)
The brain’s function is producing behavior.
#Principle 1: The nervous system produces movement in a perceptual world the brain constructs.
Human versus dog brains produce a different reality (due to different vision/audition)
The brain is plastic: neural tissue has the capacity to change in response to the world.
Culture plays a dominant role in shaping our behavior.
#Principle 2: Neuroplasticity is the hallmark of nervous system functioning
Phenotypic plasticity: the individual’s capacity to develop a range of phenotypes(= characteristic)
Genotype interacts with the environment to elicit a phenotype.
Epigenetic factors do not change genes but rather influence how genes inherited express traits.
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Neurons in somatic division (PNS) connect (via cranial / spinal nerves) to receptors on a body’s surface
and muscles. Somatic neurons gather sensory info for CNS and convey it from CNS to move muscles.
Autonomic division (PNS) enables CNS to govern the workings of your body’s internal organs.
Enteric system (PNS) (not in the course) controls digestion and stomach, gut.
The autonomic nervous system (ANS): -parasympathetic; calming, produces the rest- / digest response.
-sympathetic nerves; arousing, the fight-or-flight response, vigorous activity
The somatic nervous system (SNS): carries sensory info to CNS from the muscles, joints, and skin.
Transmits outgoing motor instructions that produce movement.
-spinal nerves;
-cranial nerves;
Afferent = incoming = sensory Efferent = outgoing = motor
Medial: inwards brain Lateral: sideways
Anterior: forwards Posterior: backwards
Dorsal: upwards, backside Ventral: downwards, frontside
Rostral: beak (=anterior) Caudal: tail (=posterior)
Coronal section: vertical ‘plane’, frontal view
Horizontal section: dorsal view
Sagittal section: medial view (longest pic)
The nervous system is bilaterally symmetrical. Same side = ipsilateral, different side = contralateral, each
hemisphere = bilateral, close = proximal, distant = distal.
Meninges: protects brain -Dura mater: hard outer layer of skull, encloses brain & spinal cord in a ‘sac’.
-Arachnoid layer: ultrathin sheet, connective tissue following brain’s contours.
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,(Subarachnoid space: filled with CSF(=cerebrospinal fluid)
-Pia mater: medium though, connective tissue that clings to the brain’s surface.
Meningitis: inflammation of meninges, response = pressure in cranium affects brain, could be coma.
Encephalitis: inflammation of brain, usually treated by removing a whole hemisphere.
Frontal-, Parietal-, Occipital- and Temporal lobe define divisions of the cerebral cortex.
Frontal lobe: performs brain’s executive functions (decision making, voluntary movement)
Parietal lobe: direct movements toward goal or to perform a task (grasping an object)
Occipital lobe: visual scene processing
Temporal lobe: hearing/language/musical abilities, facial recognition, emotional processing
Longitudinal fissure: separates hemispheres, (separates frontal, parietal and temporal lobe)
Central sulcus: separates frontal and parietal lobe from dorsal view?
Lateral sulcus:
Olfactory bulbs: in vertebrate forebrain, sense of smell
Brain stem: ventral view middle, responsible for critical functions of life
Cerebellum: diagonally behind brainstem (2x?)
Gyri: bumps
Sulci: cracks
The anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral arteries send blood to the cerebrum; sensitive to
blockage/break = stroke (hersenbloeding) = 2 nd most common death cause
#Principle 3: Many brain circuits are crossed. ( A stroke in the left hemisphere = right body damaged)
White matter: inside in brain, outside in spinal cord, covered in myelin (=fat)
Grey matter: outside of the brain, inside in spinal cord
Corpus callosum: connection of hemispheres
Lateral ventricles: ‘2 holes in middle of brain’, cavities contain CSF, flows to 3 rd & 4th ventricles, into
cerebral aqueduct. It bathes the brain.
#Principle 4: The CNS functions on multiple levels, much overlap
Subcortical area: connections with cortical areas, sensory/perceptual/cognitive/motor functions.
asymmetry: neocortical auditory area; right-handed= planum temporal (responsible for understanding
speech) larger in left hemisphere. Heschl’s gyrus (responsible for analyzing music) larger in the right.
Neurons: carry out brain’s communicative and information processing functions. Connected to each
other by fibers (=axons).
Glial cells: aid and modulate the neurons’ activities (insulating their axons)
Grey matter has layers;
Tract: bundle of nerve fibers in CNS. Nerves: bundle of nerve fibers outside CNS.
2-2 The Conserved Pattern of Nervous System Development
Prosencephalon (front brain) is responsible for olfaction, the sense of smell
Mesencephalon (middle brain) is the seat of vision and hearing
Rhombencephalon (hindbrain) controls movement and balance. The spinal cord is part of the hindbrain.
Diencephalon (between brain)
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, Telencephalon (endbrain)
Metencephalon (across brain): includes cerebellum, myelencephalon (spinal brain) & spinal cord.
Hierarchical organization affects every human behavior, each structure adds a dimension to behavior.
#Principle 6: Brain systems are organized hierarchically and in parallel.
2-3 The Central Nervous System: Mediating Behavior
#Principle 7: Sensory and motor divisions permeate the nervous system.
Spinal cord: -executes most movement, following instructions from the brain (except spinal reflexes)
Brainstem: begins where spinal cord enters skull, extends upward into lower areas of the forebrain.
= hindbrain + midbrain + diencephalon/between brain (fore-arm / wrist / fist)
-receives afferent signals coming in from all of the body’s senses & sends to spinal cord
creates a sensory world and directs movements
Hindbrain + midbrain = extensions of spinal cord
Hindbrain: especially important in motor functions, from breathing to balance to fine movements.
-cerebellum: (large / distinctive) (slowly moving animals = small cerebellum), complex movements,
expansion cerebellum more capacity for planning/executing complex behavioral sequences(language)
-the reticular formation: netlike mixture of neurons (gray matter) and nerve fibers (white matter), nuclei
are localized into small patches along its length (each with special function in stimulating the forebrain).
-the pons and medulla: vital body movements, pons = bridge between cerebellum & brain
Midbrain: especially important in sensory functions,
-tectum (=roof, dorsal): sensory info from eyes & ears, p242
-tegmentum (=floor, ventral): motor,
-inferior colliculus receives input from auditory pathways
-colliculi process sensory info, produce orienting movements related to sensory input (turning head, etc.
auditory and visual systems must share a map of the external world)
-red nucleus controls limb movements
-substantia nigra connects to the forebrain, for initiating movements, (related to Parkinson)
-periaqueductal gray matter (PAG), cell bodies around aqueduct with 3 rd & 4th ventricles, contains
circuits that control species-typical behaviors (female sexual behavior)
Diencephalon/between brain: especially important in integrative sensorimotor tasks,
integrates sensory and motor information on its way to the cerebral cortex.
-thalamus: in both hemispheres, relatively large, organizer and integrator of sensory info to cerebral
cortex, some motor regions,
-hypothalamus (below thalamus): in both hemispheres, control production of hormones together with
pituitary gland, takes part in almost all behavior,
-lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) (thalamic region): processes optic tract info
Forebrain: largest and most recent developed,
-cerebral cortex: mental activities (perception, planning, emotions, memory)
-basal ganglia: voluntary movement
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