A 68 page booklet with all the information you need for each topic within A Level Psychology. This booklet outlines and evaluates theories, studies and anything else you need to know. This booklet includes all topics in psychology (but only relationships, schizophrenia and addiction from the option...
THE SPEC: Approaches in Psychology
The basic assumptions of the following approaches:
• Learning approaches: i) the behaviourist approach, including classical conditioning and
Pavlov’s research, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research; ii)
social learning theory including imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement,
the role of mediational processes and Bandura’s research.
• The psychodynamic approach: the role of the unconscious, the structure of personality, that
is Id, Ego and Superego, defence mechanisms including repression, denial and
displacement, psychosexual stages.
• Humanistic Psychology: free will, self-actualisation and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, focus
on the self, congruence, the role of conditions of worth. The influence on counselling
Psychology.
LEARNING APPROACHES:
- Behaviourist approach
- Social learning theory
The learning approach states we are born a blank slate with no genetic or predisposed traits,
attitudes or abilities, instead we learn all behaviour from the environment.
- Our environment is individual to each person
- Behaviourists reject all unseen human experience, although we have thoughts and
emotions that are of no interest to behaviourists as they are subjective and cannot be
objectively measured. Behaviourists only focus on observable, measurable
behaviours.
- Behaviourists only use strictly scientific measures
- We have limited free will or personal responsibility.
BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH:
Behaviourists believed that human behaviour could be explained in terms of a basic form of
learning, known as conditioning, which has been developed to include three main theories;
Classical conditioning, Operant conditioning and The Social Learning Theory.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (PAVLOV): Suggests that human and animal behaviour can
be learnt through association, when a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated (or
paired) with an unconditioned response. For example: We may associate wasps (previously
a neutral stimulus) with feelings of fear
(previously an unconditioned response)
because we were once stung by a wasp or
bee.
PAVLOV 1902: Laboratory experiment,
repeated measures, random sampling.
Pavlov harnessed dogs and connected tubes
to their saliva ducts so the level of salivation
could be measured. Before conditioning,
Pavlov rang a bell which produced no
response to the dogs (Neutral stimulus)
however when presented with food
,(Unconditioned stimulus) the dogs salivated as a natural reflex (Unconditioned response.
During conditioning Pavlov rang the bell (NS) everytime the dogs were fed. The dogs
continued to salivate (UCR) in response to the food (UCS). After conditioning, the dogs
associated the bell with the food so that they salivated in response to the bell alone. The bell
was no longer a neutral stimulus; it has become a combined stimulus which produced the
conditioned response of salivation.
OPERANT CONDITIONING: Operant Conditioning suggests that human and animal
behaviour can be learned by consequences, such as reward and punishment. If a person is
rewarded for a particular behaviour, it is more likely that they will repeat the behaviour
In hope of a similar reward or they are less likely to repeat the behaviour if they are initially
punished for it.
- Positive reinforcement: Provides a pleasant consequence and makes a behaviour
more likely.
- Negative reinforcement: Removes a bad consequence and makes a behaviour more
likely.
- Punishment: Provides a bad consequence and makes a behaviour less likely.
SKINNER: Laboratory experiment, repeated measures, random sampling. Skinner designed
a controlled environment for rats of pigeons called Skinner's box. The box contained a lever
which could be pressed to release a food pellet (reward) or to switch off unpleasant stimuli
such as an electric shock (negative reinforcement) or be given a mild electric shock
(Punishment) Skinner placed the hungry rats into the box to record their lever presses. The
rat explored the environment and by accidently pressing the lever quickly learnt to associate
the lever with food. Rats given a food pellet (a positive reinforcer) were more likely to
repeatedly press the lever in anticipation of the same consequence and they quickly learnt to
press the lever to turn off electric shocks, returning them to a pre-aversive state (a
reinforcer), making them more likely to repeatedly press the lever in anticipation of the same
consequence. The rats given an electric shock (a punisher) very quickly learned not to press
the lever in anticipation of the same consequence.
(P) A strength of the learning approach is that it has led to REAL LIFE APPLICATION, (E) which is when the principles of
classical and operant are put into practice. (E) This is because Pavlov’s work has been influential in the development of
successful treatments for disorders such as phobias and addiction, whereby patients are taught to make new associations
between stimulus and response. Additionally, Skinner’s work has contributed to the development of token economy systems
which are reward systems used in prisons and psychiatric institutions to reinforce positive behaviours with gaining privileges.
(L) Due to the success of these treatments, it is clear that humans behave in the way predicted by the theory, therefore
contributing to our understanding of human behaviour.
(P) A strength of the learning approach is that it has SCIENTIFIC CREDIBILITY. (E) This is because Behaviourism focuses on
measuring observable behaviour within highly structured and controlled laboratory settings. (E) This emphasises the
importance of objectivity and replication. (L) This brought the language and methods of the natural sciences (those that attempt
to understand how the world around us works) into psychology, giving the subject greater credibility and status.
(I) A limitation of the learning approach is that it is ENVIRONMENTALLY DETERMINISTIC, (C) which is when a theory
suggests that our free choice or personal responsibility is limited by learned, environmental factors. (E) This is because the
approach suggests we do not have free choice in the development of behaviour. This is because Behaviourists suggest that
everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history, ignoring any possible influence of free will. (D) This means that
when something happens we impose a sense of having made the decision but, according to Behaviourists (like Skinner), our
past conditioning experiences determine the outcome.
(I) A limitation of the learning approach is that it has ETHICAL AND PRACTICAL ISSUES with using animal experiments, (C)
this is because although experimental procedures such as the Skinner Box enable Behaviourists to maintain a high degree of
control over variables, it can be unethical due to the adverse conditions the animals are exposed to, (E) also it can be difficult to
generalise results to human behaviour, as human behaviour is influenced by thinking and emotion
,SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory suggests that human and animal behaviour can be learned by
imitating the behaviour we observe in others, through Vicarious Reinforcement. A person
receives (indirect) vicarious positive reinforcement by observing behaviour being (directly)
positively reinforced in a role model. In this way, the person is likely to imitate the model’s
behaviour in anticipation of a similar level of direct positive reinforcement. This process is
called modelling.
- Indirect (Vicarious) reinforcement: When a person observes a role model being
directly positively reinforced for a behaviour and imitates the model’s behaviour in
anticipation of a similar level of positive reinforcement, this is called modelling.
- Direct reinforcement: Once the person successfully reproduces the behaviour it is
likely to be reinforced by operant conditioning.
BANDURA 1977 THE ROLE OF MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES- Bandura states that we
don’t just observe a behaviour and reproduce it but that we go through four mediational
processes which creates a decision to whether we reproduce the behaviour or not.
1) Attention- Attention must be paid to our role models. We are most likely to observe
models we identify with eg. same age or sex.
2) Retention- Observed behaviours must be memorised
3) Motivation- The person must be motivated to reproduce the behaviour
4) Reproduction- An observed behaviour is imitated.
BANDURA BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT: Laboratory experiment, independent groups,
opportunity sampling. 36 males and 36 females with a mean age of 4 years old were split
into three experimental groups. In condition one: Each child was led into a room by a female
experimenter and seated with paper and crayons, minutes later a second experimenter
entered and behaved aggressively towards a bobo doll for around 10 minutes. The adult role
model was seen kicking and punching the doll. In condition two: In condition two the same
experimenter entered the room but didn't act aggressively towards the doll, instead he/she
played with a construction toy. Condition three: acted as a controlled condition and did not
include the second experimenter. After 10 minutes the children were led to another room
with toys, to cause aggression arousal the children were told they can’t play with the toys.
Then after two minutes the children were taken into another room where there was a
selection of aggressive toys such as the bobo doll and a toy hammer and non aggressive
toys like dolls and crayons. The children played in this room for 20mins where their
behaviours were observed. Findings: The children who had seen the aggressive role model
were more likely to show the same aggressive behaviours to the bobo doll. In all conditions
the boys were more aggressive than the girls and imitation was greater if the second role
model the children observed was the same sex.
P) A strength of the Social Learning theory (SLT) is that i t recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning (E)
this is because SLT recognises the importance of mediational processes when explaining human behaviour. (E) For example,
unlike SLT, neither classical or operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning on their own, humans and
animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to
perform certain actions, SLT recognises that thought processes occur between the observation of a given behaviour and the
decision to imitate it. (L) Therefore SLT provides a more complete explanation of human learning than the behaviourist
approach by recognising these important factors.
(P) A strength of the Social Learning theory (SLT) is that it is culturally universal, (E) social learning principles can account for
how children learn from other people around them, as well as through the media, and this can explain how cultural norms are
transmitted. (E) this has provided useful in understanding a range of behaviours across cultures, such as how children come to
understand their gender role by imitating role models. (L) Due to this strength, it is clear that we do behave in the way predicted
by the theory therefore increasing the validity of the explanation.
, P) A limitation of the Social Learning theory (SLT) is it is environmentally deterministic, (E) which is when a theory suggests
that our free choice or personal responsibility is limited by learned, environmental factors. (E) This is because the approach
suggests we do not have free choice in the development of behaviour. However, not all people will imitate behaviour from role
models, some people choose not to behave in a certain way. (L) Therefore this causes us to question the validity of social
learning as an explanation for behaviour.
(P) A limitation of the Social Learning theory (SLT) is that it is environmentally determinist (E) which is when a theory
inappropriately explains behaviour in terms of basic learned, environmental units. (E) This is because whilst the SLT theory
makes the assumption that aggressive behaviours are learnt through imitation, it ignores the impact of biological factors on
behaviour. For example, boys showing more aggressive behaviour than girls in Bandura’s study could be explained by
hormones, such as differences in levels of testosterone, a hormone that is present in greater quantities in boys than girls, which
is linked to aggressive behaviour. (L) As this important influence is not accounted for in SLT, it causes us to question the
validity of social learning as an explanation for behaviour.
THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH:
Basic assumptions:
- The unconscious mind is the force behind all behaviour and abnormal behaviour is
caused by unconscious conflicts.
- Early childhood experiences are crucial in shaping who we are today and most of our
psychological development is complete by the time we’re six.
FREUD THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND: According to the Psychodynamic Approach, the mind
is made up of three levels of thought: Freud argued that the unconscious mind is the driving
force in all behaviour and can be described as an iceberg with three layers:
- The Conscious Mind (thoughts and feelings we are aware of)
- The Preconscious Mind (memories we can access at any time if we want to)
- The Unconscious Mind (thoughts, feelings and memories that are locked away
because they are too painful to remember)
Freud proposed that personality is made up of three interacting elements:
- ID: The ID is completely unconscious; it follows the pleasure principle because it
constantly tries to gratify an unconscious desire for pleasure.
- EGO: The ego is our conscious self. It follows the reality principle because it seeks
to grant the needs of the Id but only when it is sensible or rational to do so.
- SUPEREGO: The superego is part-conscious, part-unconscious. It is our morality
and only grants the needs of the Id when it is morally right to do so.
According to Freud, all three parts of our personality are in constant unconscious conflict for
libido (psychosexual energy). If the distribution of libido is relatively equal between each part
of our personality, ‘normal’ behaviour occurs. However, if the distribution is unequal and one
part dominates the others, abnormal or undesirable behaviours may occur.
FREUD EGO DEFENCE MECHANISMS: The Psychodynamic Approach argues that the
unconscious conflict between the Id, Ego and Superego causes anxiety. To protect us from
this conflict, the mind uses ego defence mechanisms:
- Repression:Hurtful memories are ‘pushed out’ of conscious recollection into the
unconscious to protect oneself from the anxiety they would cause.
- Denial: Unconsciously pretending that a problem doesn’t exist to protect oneself from
the anxiety it would cause.
- Displacement: When a strong emotion is unconsciously passed from the
object/person causing anxiety to a ‘more acceptable’ target.
FREUD PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT: During childhood, we pass
through several psychosexual stages of development which shape our personality.
Successful completion in childhood leads to ‘normal’ behaviours. However, If an
unconscious conflict arises; the child is over-gratified (receives too much pleasure) or
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