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Summary 1 Research Methodology and Descriptive Statistics
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Summary RMDSUnit 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 23
Unit 1
Empirical research = systematically answering empirical questions
- Systematically = excluding the possibility that other answers are better than the answer we give
- Empirical = things we can observe
Empirical research questions are answered by thinking and observing
Procedure:
- Theory: think about possible answers, talk to others, read literature
- Research design: plan, decide how to test
- Data collective: observe
- Data analysis: analyze and answer question
Types of research questions:
- Normative; what should be the case (norms)
- Conceptual; what does it mean, first step in research
- Empirical: what is or will be and why (how many…)
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Wheel of science = research is not a logistical sequence of steps, anything goes. Defend conclusions
by logic
Dominant idea = agreement reality, the things we think are true
Deduction = starting with a theory (knowledge about topic)
Induction = starting with data (no knowledge about topic)
Empirical research questions can only be answered using observations and are often asked in the
context of decision making
Decision making:
,Also described as: input (chosen option) black box (process evaluation) output (outcome
evaluation)
Ex ante evaluation = check whether possible solutions might work
Ex post evaluation = did solution work
Process evaluation = checking whether the solution was implemented
How to questions are hard to answer and can be broken up into descriptive and explanatory research
questions.
Descriptive = more factual, describing a characteristic (how many people smoke)
Explanatory = more causal (why do people smoke)
(Predictive) = not descriptive nor explanatory
Empirical questions come from:
- Science (follow-up existing theories)
- Decision making
The relationship between systematic decision making and systematically answering empirical
questions is that they are in the repeating circle and the parts of doing analysis/looking options
Confirmation bias = search for, analyze and recall information in a way that confirms already
existing beliefs, while giving disproportionately less consideration to alternative interpretations and
ignore other evidence affects what we think is ‘true’
- Three types of confirmation bias:
o Information: look for what we already expected to see
o Reasoning: empathize things you believe
o Conclusions: only conclude things you believe/that support beliefs
- Examples: crime (looking for evidence), psychology (halo/horn)
- How to strengthen confirmation bias:
o Limitations in humans (thinking is difficult, so this simplifies it)
o Wishful thinking (looking for things we think are true)
o Consistency (old evidence, so new evidence should confirm this)
- Consequences: mistakes in knowledge & bad decisions
- Help of systematic empirical research in avoiding confirmation bias: Systematic data gathering
causes awareness in what can go wrong & explicit and complete reasoning
- Avoiding confirmation bias:
o Clarify pre-existing beliefs
o Clarify the procedure used to test the beliefs
o Stick to procedures
Publication bias = only publishing articles that confirm long held hypotheses.
, Conspiracy theories: start simple then looking for confirmation and disregarding contradicting
evidence and plausible alternatives.
Unit 2
Units of analysis = objects that the RQ is about
Variables = possible characteristics (attributes) of these objects
Example: Does the level of integration in society (V) affect the amount of criminal behavior (V)
among young people (U)?
Identifying units: if variable is known ask: what/who is characterized by this variable
Identifying variables: if unit is known ask: what characteristic does the unit have
Research step: research question procedure knowledge
Distinguishing empirical questions;
- Many explanatory questions have two variables, however…
o Not all questions with two variables are explanatory
o Not all questions refer explicitly in two variables
Developing research questions:
Formulating RQ: UTOS:
- Units
- Variables (treatments and observations)
- Setting (time/place)
Independent variable = cause/where it starts
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