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Summary Islam in the Modern World
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Summary of the readings from Nico Kaptein's class on Islam in the Modern World. Includes all terms and names from his document which should be mastered for the final.
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Samenvatting leerstof Islam, een levende traditie (boek Sheppard: Introducing Islam)
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Islam in the Modern World Summary ReadingsWeek 1: Framing Islam in the Modern World (Shepard Chapter 15)
Between the 1800s ~1920, almost all of the Muslim World was under the political sway of European
countries. After 1920, political and military imperialism retreated and most Muslim countries gained
independence either before 1970 or in 1991 with the end of the Soviet Union. Imperialism was not only
political and military but also economic and cultural, and almost always on disadvantageous terms for
Muslims. Cultural imperialism has been seen as a justification for imperialism, including notions such as
introduction of modern/Western technology, ideologies and jobs as part of its ‘civilizing mission.’
An important element of the Muslim experience from the last two centuries has been a sense that history
‘went wrong’ and that Muslim societies have not progressed in the way that they should have. The main
cause of this has been Western imperialism, although even before this some believed that reform was
needed. The responses have involved both acceptance and rejection of Western ways, in varying degrees:
- Traditionalists generally desire minimum change and only seek change that is continuous with what
went before. During the last century different kinds of neo-traditionalisms can be seen: for example,
Ayatollah Khomeini (Iran) and in the Nahdlatul Ulama (Indonesia).
- Modernists generally seek a significant reformulation of Islam. They believed that if the West,
having received science and wisdom from the Muslims, had then ‘surpassed’ them, it was only
because the Muslims had closed the gate ijtihad. Therefore, they claimed that the gates must be
reopened wide and that the implications of the Qur’an should be rethought considering modern
knowledge and practice. Modernists have also been more inclined than traditionalists to reject hadith
that were weakly based. In practice, modernists’ interpretation has often meant finding Islamic
justification for Westernizing practices. Modernists do not ignore the scholarship of the past but are
not bound by it and rather may try to use it in creative ways.
- Secularists want to create a social space that is not governed by Islam. Usually, they claim not to
reject Islamic religion as such, but they do reject the proposition that Islam is a total way of life.
Secularism is seen as the appropriate solution especially when a society is divided by religion or sect.
However, secularism in the Muslim world rarely if ever involves separation of religion and state;
rather, the state almost always controls the religious institutions. Matters such as marriage, divorce
and inheritance are left under Shari’a law. The classic example of secularism is Turkey, where
reforms in the 1920s replaced Shari’a law with law codes from Europe.
- Islamists (sometimes referred to as fundamentalists) desire to create a society whose governing
ideology is Islam. They hold that only the Qur’an and Hadith are fully authoritative and that the gate
of the absolute ijtihad must be open; they insist that this ijtihad must be rigorously Islamic and not a
cover for taqlid (unquestioning acceptance/following) of the West.
Islamism is a modern phenomenon. More than others they insist that it is possible to have modernization
without secularization. The call for an ‘Islamic State’ is particularly characteristic of Islamism, but it
should be a modern state. Islamic banking and Islamic economics can be considered aspects of Islamism.
The most well-known Islamist organization is the Muslim Brotherhood.
Salafism forcefully rejects ‘innovations’ not found among the early generations of Muslims (salaf) and
takes both a more ‘liberal’ and a more ‘conservative’ form. They wish to follow the salaf as closely as
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,possible under modern conditions and are quite strict in matters related to ritual, gender and family
concerns. They are also highly critical of Shi’ites and Sufis.
Since the 1970s there has been a ‘resurgence’ of Islam. One major reason for this appears to be a feeling
that secularism had failed to deliver on its promises. This resurgence has involved many forms of Islamic
expression, for example in the increasing attendance at mosques, movements for including women,
increased participation of Ramadan and the Hajj, and increasing sales of religious books. The most drastic
examples of this resurgence were the Islamic revolution in Iran and the successful Afghan jihad against
Russian occupation.
Week 2: Ideology and Politics in Egypt (Shepard Chapter 17)
Responses of Egypt to the Western Challenge:
The beginnings of modernization and secularization
In Egypt, both the ‘ulama and the Sufis were influential in the 18th century, but they lost ground
especially in the upper levels of society in 19th century and early 20th (but seemed to have regained some
influence since about 1970). This started when the Mamlukes ruled the region in early 19th century and
shifted the country’s focus to modernizing reforms and removing power of the ‘ulama (and therefore
‘ulama-run institutions). This occurred under ruling of an Albanian officer from the Ottoman army,
Muhammad ‘Ali, also known as the “Great Modernizer” (though he is loved by few). Modernizing efforts
continued in Egypt, for example through commercial code and abolishing jizya (granting equality to
religious minorities), adopting the Western calendar, and a dual court system that continued until the
1950s. In 1882, British military forced occupied the country - an occupation that lasted for 40 years -
causing British “advisors” to largely determine the country’s policies.
Muhamad ‘Abduh and Islamic modernism
Egyptian scholar Muhammad ‘Abduh (1842-1905) believed that Egypt needed a period of European
tutelage before becoming part of the modern world. He was a pupil of al-Afghani: Muslim politician,
political agitator, and journalist whose belief in the potency of a revived Islamic civilization in the face of
European domination significantly influenced the development of Muslim thought in the 19th and early
20th centuries. ‘Abduh worked on administrative reforms and reforms for Shari’a courts, giving fatwas
on matters of public interest. He is described as a liberal salafi in the sense of wanting to revive the spirit
of early Islam while flexibly meeting current needs and de-emphasizing miracles. He believed right and
wrong could largely be found through human reason and believed in human choice over predestination.
He is the best known and most influential of the modernist reformers. Qasim Amin was one of ‘Abduh’s
disciples, and he essentially called for a replacement of the existing form of male dominance with a
Western one with his viewpoint of emancipation of women.
Nationalism and secularization in the early twentieth century
By 1900, Egypt was divided into a small class who lived a Europeanized lifestyle and a large ‘traditional’
population; the small class had disproportionate political and cultural influence. Nationalistic and patriotic
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, feelings increased in Egypt during WWI and led to a movement calling for independence — a popular
secular nationalist revolt in 1919 (where Christians and Muslims cooperated saying that “Religion is for
God, but the fatherland is for all”) led to end of the British occupation in 1922. The constitution then
implemented stated that: all authority would stem from the nation, Islam is the religion of the state but
there is freedom of religion, and all Egyptians are equal before law. Women played a large role in this
revolt, soon after which the Egyptian Feminist Union was founded. Especially education expanded in the
years following independence. The initial focus laid with Egyptian nationalism, but later (1930s) moved
into pan-Arab nationalism. During this time many controversial books and works were published.
The beginnings of Islamism: The Muslim Brothers
Whereas some took ‘Abduh’s legacy in a secular direction, others took it in an Islamist direction. The
doctrine of salafiyya (partly influenced by Wahabis in Saudi Arabia) was developed by Rashid Rida. This
included interpretations on jihad as being defensive, interest on loans as acceptable, and traditional
predominance of men over women. Hasan al-Banna (1906-49), founder of the Muslim Brothers (1928)
was influenced greatly by Rida. Initially the Muslim Brotherhood was meant as a social and educational
group, but it quickly turned into a mass movement with a political message — the ultimate goal of an
“Islamic Order” in which Islam is followed in all areas of life. However, they still focused on educational,
social and economic activities. Most members were of middle class and many of them spread to other
Arab countries after WWII; many fought on the Arab side during the 1948 war in Palestine. Egypt after
the war was chaotic and violent, and the (MB) movement was banned from 1948-1951 as a member had
assassinated the prime minister in 1948.
The Muslim Brothers have participated in several parliamentary elections and have done relatively well.
More recently they have been satisfied with representation on the governing boards of syndicates without
control. They have played a significant role in society, for example by providing aid to the people.
Revolution: support, control and repression
In 1952 a group of army officers took control of the government under the leadership of Gamal Abdel
Nasser. They initially adopted secular Arab nationalism as their ideology and later adopted Arab
Socialism (1961), in both cases Islam did not take a central place. They incorporated and reformed
religious institutions: separate religious courts were abolished, and mosques and schools were put under
state control. The Muslim Brothers initially supported the regime but were banned in 1954 after an
attempted assassination of Nasser, which was then blamed on the Brothers. Sayyid Qutb (1906-66) joined
the Muslim Brothers and became their chief ideologue. He believed that the only way to establish an
Islamic society is by jihad, resulting in a revolutionary takeover after a long period of preparation and
then a long struggle. Qutb was put in prison by Nasser, and after being released in 1964 was rearrested
and even executed in 1966. Sufi schools, tariqas, continued to be important even with criticism from
secularists and salafis. Nasser supported them in part as a counterbalance to Islamists and used them for
propaganda, just as later governments have done as well.
Resurgence of Islam
After Nasser’s death, his successor Anwar al-Sadat removed his left-wing colleagues and opened Egypt to
a greater degree of capitalism and trade with the West; he gave more place to religion and released
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