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Summary Detailed Research Methods Paper 1 AQA Sociology Notes
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Detailed notes on Research methods (includes Methods in Context): A-Level AQA Sociology
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Paper 1 – Research Method NotesPaper 1 – Education with Theory & Methods
Specification:
4.1.2 Methods in Context:
Students must be able to apply sociological research methods to the study of education.
4.1.3 Theory and Methods:
Students must examine the following areas:
quantitative and qualitative methods of research; research design
sources of data, including questionnaires, interviews, participant and non-participant observation,
experiments, documents and official statistics
the distinction between primary and secondary data, and between quantitative and qualitative data
the relationship between positivism, interpretivism and sociological methods; the nature of ‘social facts’
the theoretical, practical and ethical considerations influencing choice of topic, choice of method(s) and
the conduct of research
consensus, conflict, structural and social action theories
the concepts of modernity and post-modernity in relation to sociological theory
the nature of science and the extent to which Sociology can be regarded as scientific
the relationship between theory and methods
debates about subjectivity, objectivity and value freedom
the relationship between Sociology and social policy.
Assessment Objectives:
AO1: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of: sociological theories, concepts and evidence, sociological
research methods
AO2: Apply sociological theories, concepts, evidence and research methods to a range of issues
AO3: Analyse and evaluate sociological theories, concepts, evidence and research methods in order to: present
arguments, make judgements, draw conclusions
1
Key: Sociological theories, Sociologists, Data/Evidence, Evaluation, Key vocabulary.
,Paper 1 – Research Method Notes
Topic 1 - Choosing a research method:
Primary & secondary sources of data:
Primary data – information collected by sociologists themselves for their own purposes. Methods
include: Social surveys (asking questions in written questionnaires/interviews), Participant
observation (sociologist joins in with activities of group they are studying) & experiments (field
experiments & the comparative method). Advantage: precise information can be gathered to test
hypotheses; doing so can be costly & time consuming.
Secondary data – information that has been collected/created by someone else for their own
purposes. Sources of secondary data include: Official statistics (produced by gov on a wide range
of issues), Documents (letters, emails, diaries, etc.). Advantage: quick & cheap way of doing
research; those who produced the information may not be interested in the same questions as
sociologists, they may not provide exactly the info that sociologists need.
Quantitative & qualitative data:
Quantitative data – information in numerical form. Examples: official statistics on GCSE, % of
marriages ending in divorce or the number of the unemployed. Research collected by opinion
polls/market research surveys = quantitative data.
Qualitative data – gives a ‘feel’ for what something is like. Examples: what it feels like to get
good GCSE results, or for one’s marriage to end in divorce. Evidence gathered using participant
observation aims to give us a sense of what it feels like to be a member of a particular group. In-
depth interviews that probe deeply into a person’s views can give us an insight into their lives.
Provides rich descriptions of people’s feelings/experiences.
Factors influencing choice of methods:
Practical Time & money Different methods require different amounts of time/money; this
Issues: may influence the sociologist’s choice. E.g., large-scale surveys
may employ dozens of interviewers & data-inputting staff =
costly. Small-scale project, involving lone researcher = cheaper
to carry out, several years to complete. Researcher's access to
resources = major factor in determining which method to employ.
Requirements of Research institutes and businesses that provide funding for
funding bodies research may require results to be in particular forms. E.g., a gov
department funding research may require quantitative data on
achievement. The sociologist will have to use a method capable
of producing such data, questionnaires/structured interviews.
Personal skills & Each sociologist possesses different personal skills; this may
characteristics affect their ability to use different methods. E.g., participant
observation requires the ability to mix easily with others, depth
interviews call for an ability to establish rapport with the
interviewee. Some may have difficulty using these methods if
they do not have these qualities.
Subject matter It may be harder to study a particular group/subject by one
method than by another. E.g., it might prove difficult for a male
sociologist to study an all-female group by participant
observation.
Research The opportunity to carry out research happens unexpectedly: it
opportunity may not be possible to use structured methods such as
questionnaires which take longer to prepare.
Ethical Informed consent Research participants should be offered the right to refuse to be
2
Key: Sociological theories, Sociologists, Data/Evidence, Evaluation, Key vocabulary.
,Paper 1 – Research Method Notes
Issues: involved. Researchers should tell them about relevant aspects of
the research to make a fully informed decision. Consent should
be obtained before research begins; lengthy study = intervals
throughout.
Confidentiality & Researchers should keep the identity of research participants
privacy secret to prevent possible side effects on them. They should
respect privacy. Personal information concerning participants
should be kept confidential.
Harm to research Researchers need to be aware of side effects of their work on
participants those they study. Could include: police intervention, harm to
employment prospects, social exclusion etc. Researchers should
anticipate/prevent harm.
Vulnerable Special care to be taken for the vulnerable due to age, disability,
groups physical/ mental health. E.g., children in schools – consent of
parents & child.
Covert research Researcher's identity/research purpose = hidden from those
being studied. Can create ethical problems – deceiving, lying to
people to win trust. Impossible to gain informed consent while
keeping research secret.
Theoretical Validity Valid method produces a genuine picture of what something is
issues: like; it allows the researcher to get closer to the truth. Qualitative
methods (PO) give us more valid accounts than quantitative
methods (Questionnaires).
Reliability Replicability. Reliable method = one which gives same results
when repeated. Quantitative methods (written questionnaires)
tend to produce more reliable results than qualitative methods
(unstructured interviews).
Representativene Whether or not the people we study are a typical cross-section of
ss the group we are interested in. Representative samples can be
used to make generalisations. Large-scale quantitative surveys
that use sophisticated sampling techniques to select their sample
are more likely to produce representative data.
Methodological Sociologists’ view of what society is like & how we should study it.
perspectives Positivism – quantitative data, seek to discover patterns of
behaviour, see sociology as a science. Functionalists/Marxists
take positivist approach – see society as a macro-level structure
that shapes behaviour.
Interpretivism – qualitative data, seek to understand meaning,
reject view that sociology can model itself on the natural
sciences. Interactionists – take a micro-level view of society,
focusing on small-scale, face-to-face interactions.
Conclusion: Sociologists' theoretical perspective = most important factor when choosing which
method to use. They will obtain the type of data their perspective views as most
appropriate. Practical & ethical factors usually limit the choice.
Why do positivists & interpretivists prefer different types of data?
Positivists & interpretivists collect/use different types of data – they make different assumptions
about the nature of society & how we should study it.
Positivists assume that society has an objective Interpretivists reject the idea of an objective social
factual reality – it exists ‘out there’ just like nature. reality – we construct reality through meanings
created by interactions.
Society exerts an influence over its members, Our actions are based on the meanings we give to
systematically shaping their behaviour patterns. situations; they are not the product of external
forces.
Positivist research uses quantitative data to Interpretivist research uses qualitative data to
3
Key: Sociological theories, Sociologists, Data/Evidence, Evaluation, Key vocabulary.
, Paper 1 – Research Method Notes
uncover & measure these patterns of behaviour uncover & describe the social actor’s ‘universe of
meaning’.
By analysing quantitative data, positivists seek to By interpreting qualitative data, interpretivists
discover the objective scientific laws of cause & seek to gain a subjective understanding of actors’
effect that determine behaviour. meanings & ‘life worlds’.
Positivists prefer questionnaires, structured Interpretivists thus prefer participant observation,
interviews, experiments & official statistics. They unstructured interviews & personal documents –
produce data that is reliable & representative. they produce data that is valid.
Factors influencing choice of topic:
The Sociologist's theoretical perspective is a major influence on their choice of research topic.
sociologist E.g., a New Right researcher may study effects of welfare benefits on the growth of lone-
’s parent families since the idea of welfare dependency is central to their standpoint. Feminist
perspectiv researchers are more likely to choose to study domestic violence, as opposition to gender
oppression is part of their perspective.
e
Society’s Sociologists are part of the society they study; they are influenced by values. As values
values change, so does the focus of research. Rise of feminism in 1960s led to a focus on gender
inequality; today’s environmental concerns have generated interest in ‘green crimes’ (toxic
waste dumping).
Practical Practical factors (inaccessibility) may restrict what topic researchers' study. Although
factors sociologists may wish to study the ways in which global corporations make their decisions,
this may not be possible due to secrecy.
Funding Most research requires funding from an external body, including gov agencies, the
bodies Economic & Social Research Council (ESRC), charities & businesses. The funding body
funding the research will determine the topic to be investigated.
The process of research:
1 Formulating a Hypothesis = explanation that can be tested by collecting evidence to prove it
hypothesis / true/false. Formulating a cause-and-effect statement & collecting evidence to
aim test it. Advantage: gives direction to research; it gives focus to questions since
their purpose is to gather info that will either confirm or refute our hypothesis.
Positivists – favour a hypothesis as the starting point for research. They seek to
discover cause-and-effect relationships. Using quantitative methods
(questionnaires), they formulate questions designed to discover whether/why
factors are linked.
Aim = identifies what we intend to study & hope to achieve through research.
Advantage: open-ended. Data can be gathered on anything. Interpretivists
favour a broad aim rather than hypothesis – they are interested in
understanding actors’ meanings.
2 Operationalisi Requirement = ‘operational’ definition of key ideas – working definition that
ng concepts allows us to measure the concept. Once the concept has been operationalised,
questions of how to measure can be devised. Problem: different sociologists
operationalise the same concept differently – can make it hard to compare the
findings of different pieces of research.
Positivists – concerned to operationalise concepts due to the importance placed
on creating/testing hypotheses.
Interpretivists – less emphasis on operationalising concepts – they are interested
in unique definitions & understandings than imposing their own definitions of
concepts.
3 Pilot study Sociologists who use social surveys (questionnaires/structured interviews) carry
out a pilot study before conducting the main survey. Involves trying out a draft
version of the questionnaire/interview schedule on a small sample. Basic aim:
iron out any problem, refine questions & their wording & give interviewers
practice so the actual service goes smoothly. E.g., Young & Willmott (1962)
carried out over 100 pilot interviews to decide on the design of their study.
4 Samples & Sociologists aim to produce generalisations that apply to all cases of the topic
4
Key: Sociological theories, Sociologists, Data/Evidence, Evaluation, Key vocabulary.
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