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Sexology Summary
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Intensive summary for the elective course of Sexology
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Sexology SummaryChapter 1: How can we put sexuality in perspective?
Sexual behavior is a diverse phenomenon that occurs in several physical situations, social
contexts and is experienced differently by everyone. Everyone has a complex set of
motivations and external influences that determine the decision of whether or not to engage
in sexual behaviour. It is difficult to answer all the questions about sexuality within one
scientific discipline. The study of sexuality is important for the following reasons:
1) The exchange of sexual information is taboo in many societies.
2) For many people, sexuality is an important motivation in life.
3) Some people experience difficulties with sex and problems with their sexual
functioning.
What is the difference between sex and gender?
The definition of gender is whether someone is male, female or something else; such as
trans. However, sometimes the word sex is used to describe gender, for example on a job
application form. However, most of the times sex refers to sexual behavior or reproduction.
The ambiguity in the use of the word sex causes confusion. In the context of this book, the
term sex describes sexual activity and gender refers to being male, female or something
else.
Besides the ambiguity in the use of the word sex, there are other problems with the
difference between sex and gender. A lot of contemporary research is based on the gender
binary , this is the notion that there are only two genders, being male and female. Also, the
activities that are included in sex are debatable. Biologists describe sex as every behavior
that potentially lead to the union of an egg-cell and sperm-cell. However, sexual behavior is
not only used for reproduction, but also for recreation. Therefore, this book will stick to the
definition of sexual behavior as behavior that cause arousal and increases the chance of an
orgasm; although there are problems with this definition as well.
What is the history of sexuality in religion and science?
Until about one hundred years ago, the available knowledge on sexuality came from
religious sources. The ancient Greek already told myths about the existence of hetero -and
homosexuality. In this way, they could understand these sexual orientations. In ancient
Christianity, they believed that having a “wet dream” was caused by having sex with the
mythical creatures' incubi and succubi . The person who had the wet dream was
sometimes accused of witchcraft. Muslims believe that sex is one of the most pleasurable
things in life, which reflects upon the teachings of the prophet Mohammed.
Scientific research towards sexuality started in the nineteenth century, even though at that
time it was still illegal according to religion. In his book “Theoretical Perspectives on
Sexuality” Freud described the cultural background of sexual behavior for the first time.
Norms concerning sex used to be very strict and rigid; causing sexual tension and conflict.
The psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840-1902) described the pathology of sexual
,behavior for the first time. Hirschfeld was interested in research about homosexuality and
introduced the term transvestite. Only in the twentieth century, there was a breakthrough in
scientific research towards sexuality. It was the same period in which large-scale surveys
were conducted in the United States. Because of this way of researching, sexual disorders
and alternating sexual orientations were exposed for the first time. At the same time,
scientists started investigating the biological processes of sexual behaviour.
What is the influence of mass media on sexuality?
The mass media has had a significant influence on knowledge on sexuality comparable to
religion. Especially television was of great importance, in only one hour of American
television, adolescents were exposed to a mean of seventeen behaviors or conversations
about sex. Only two percent of these images show sexual repercussions. Many of the
American insights about sexuality therefore come from mass media, instead of scientific
research. The concept of cultivation is the exposure to sexual behavior in mass media
where people believe this resembles reality.
Another major impact of mass media is called agenda setting . It is defined as the choices
that news-creators make in what information they present to their audience. The framing
theory states that the media draw attention to certain topics and not to others, suggesting
how we should think about certain matters. In this way, the media provide a framework.
The third influence of mass media is social learning . In social learning, the characters in
films serve as social models that people use to construct their ideas about the reality of sex.
Besides television, the internet is an important source of sexual knowledge. There are both
positive and negative norms displayed on the internet. Besides bad information about sexual
behaviour, positive information about sexual health is widely available and promoted. This
caused the number of sexual abuse over the internet to decrease over the last years.
However, we are also subject to the process of selectivity ourselves: People select and pay
attention to certain media and not to others. We are prone to seek information that is
consistent with our own beliefs and views.
What are cross-cultural perspectives on sexuality?
Culture is defined as the traditional norms and values that are transferred through group
members by cultural symbols, such as language. These ideas and values are the basis for
behavioral patterns for members of that group. Ethnocentrism influences this understanding
of sexual behaviour, because most people experience sex through the eyes of their culture.
The pattern in which people experience sex is therefore seen as correct. However, different
cultures hold very different attitudes towards sex. There has not ever been a single society
that has been able to guarantee complete freedom of sexual behaviour: There are always
some rules concerning sex. For example, almost every society has incest taboos;meaning
that it is illegal to have sex with a relative. Also, in most societies, rape and sexual assault
are forbidden. Besides rules about incest and rape, many differences exist between cultural
norms of sex:
, 1) Variations in sexual techniques resemble the differences in techniques of sex.
Kissing a partner is a very normal thing to do in the Western society, but is seen as
disgusting by the Tonga Africans. Romantic kissing is in fact not present in 54 per
cent of cultures. Also, cunnilingus , the stimulation of the female genitals is seen as
completely normal in Western societies. In different cultures this is practiced in a very
different way. The average amount of sex that people engage in deviations for each
culture. The Irish natives have the least sex between couples on average; maybe
only once a month, while the Mangaians are used to having sex several times a
night. Almost every culture describes norms on postpartum sex , which is the taboo
of having sex after giving birth.
2) Masturbation or self-stimulation is tolerated in some cultures while it is forbidden in
others. Especially rules about female masturbation vary among different cultures.
3) Different cultures hold different attitudes towards topics like pre -and post marital sex
. In the Pacific, pre-marital sex is completely normal and approved in 90% of the
occasions. However, 73% of cases of premarital sex are disapproved in the
Mediterranean area.
4) Homosexuality is often disapproved of in the United States. In other cultures,
homosexuality among men is promoted. It seems there are two important universal
rules about homosexuality. The first is that homosexuality exists in every culture. The
second is that sex between two people of the same gender is never the most
prevalent relationship form.
5) Attractiveness determines the choice for a sexual partner. The norms of
attractiveness vary among cultures but there seems to be one conformity: a pale skin
color is seen as unattractive in most cultures.
What is the influence of differences in social class and ethnicity on sexual behavior in
the United States?
Some varieties in attitudes in the United States can be explained in terms of differences in
social class, whereas others can be explained in terms of ethnicity . Social class is often
determined by education. The influence on sexual behavior is that women that had a
higher-level education are more likely to use birth control. People with a lower education
level are therefore also more likely to have children at a younger age. These children often
have a lower education level as well. This means that sexuality might also influence social
class.
Besides the influence of social class, there are ethnic differences in sexuality:
● In the Afro-Caribbean culture, the general norm is that women should be modest.
They see the African Americans as being sexually undisciplined. The percentage of
African Americans that engage in marriage is lower than in other ethnic groups. This
is caused by the obstacles they face in finding a decent job to be able to take care of
a family.
, ● Latinos are people from Latin American heritage. Researchers nowadays tend to
stick to the term Latinx instead of Latinos; because the latter is rather gender-bound.
They have a different view on sexuality compared to most Americans. Gender roles
are highly specific and are taught during childhood. The gender roles in the Latinx
culture are characterized by machismo or macho . It literally means masculinity and
implicates that a man is responsible for the honor and well-being of his family. The
female form is marianismo and mean that motherhood is highly valued. Also,
keeping your virginity until marriage is an important consideration for a woman.
familismo means that family is important, and support, loyalty, solidarity and
family-honour are central values in the Latinx culture.
● Asian Americans represent different cultural groups. They include Chinese,
Japanese, but also Indians. Especially the Chinese have a repressive outlook on sex.
The people from Cambodia believed that withholding information about sex would
lead to a decrease in premarital sex. Their conservative cultural values, relevant for
sexual attitudes are the following:
1) Collectivism relates to a culture where people value others more than they value
themselves. Openness of sexual behavior could lead to discomfort in others, thus it is
not tolerated. Individualistic cultures have the norm that people value themselves and
their own opinions more than they do or others. Then there are honor cultures as
well, which stress 'face', that is, individuals' reputation and the respect or honor that
people show toward it.
2) Conformity to norms means that people need to live up to high expectations of their
family and society. Shame and loss of face are important conditions on how to
behave.
3) Emotional control means that emotions should not be publicly displayed. Love and
passion should not be showed to the outside world.
● American Indians are the native Americans and exist from different tribes. Men of
this culture are masculine and often pictured naked. Females from the native
American culture are vulnerable, attractive and maidenly. They have strict rules about
pre-marital sex.
● Nowadays, a lot of people are in fact biracial or multiracial; which makes the prior
categorizations rather ambiguous.
Racial microaggressions are subtle insults that are displayed to people of another (racial)
background. It happens unnoticed and unconsciously; but it can lead to stress for the victim.
There are gender microaggressions, sexual orientation microaggressions and
microaggressions against transgenders as well.
In ancient China, there were positive and open attitudes towards human sexuality. Modern
China is however very repressive towards sex. Up until the 1980s, prostitution, premarital
sex, homosexuality and variant sexual behaviors were illegal. A sexual liberation started in
the 1980s and is still continuing.
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