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ZOL2603 Exam Prep
Questions from study guide.
Chapter 1
Explain to a friend what the single most important difference between Darwin's opinion on
evolution and that of the naturalists was.
Naturalists believe that species were created at the beginning of the world- a single pair of
each species multiplying but remaining unchanged thereafter. Darwin's opinion believes that
species change as a result of natural selection.
Comment on pre-Darwinian ideas of evolution as they are currently understood.
Carolus Linnaeus believed that species were unchangeable. believe that species were
created at the beginning of the world, as we find them today- a single pair of each species
multiplying but remaining unchanged thereafter.
JB de Lamarack believed that species could change over time due to the need for
characteristics (“need” itself produced changes inherited through subsequent generations) .
however he believed that the simplest forms arose by spontaneous generation and
thereafter evolved onward and upward into higher forms. He confused immediate
physiological response with long term evolutionary change. He believed that the course of
evolution from a lower to a higher, more complex and perfect species.
Sir Charles Lyell's book Principles of geology. He postulated the principle of
uniformitarianism, according to which the laws of chemistry and physics remain constant (i.e.
they have not changed in the course of the earth's history), and current geological processes
can be explained by gradual, directionless processes. For example, mountains are no longer
regarded as the result of catastrophes, but the consequence of the gradual aggregation of
small geological changes over time.
The process of natural selection, as described by Darwin, can be summarised in five
observations and three deductions.
a) Name the five observations and the three deductions referred to above.
Observation 1: organisms are able to produce numerous progeny
Observation 2: natural populations remain constant within limits
Observation 3: natural resources remain limited
Observation 4: organisms within populations/species show variation
Observation 5: this variation is heritable
Deduction 1: competition among members of a population
Deduction 2: there is differential survival and reproduction
Deduction 3: as a result of differential survival and reproduction, new adaptations develop
over generations, leading to new species
,b) For which of these eight elements was the work of Malthus of prime importance?
Unchecked breeding causes populations to grow geometrically (intrinsic increase in the
number of individuals within a species), whereas the food supply grows more slowly. The
simple, but cruel, result is that the number of people increases faster than the amount of
food - there is not enough food to go around (competition for limited resources) - so some
people survive, but most die (survival of the few).
Briefly explain the development of the theory of evolution
The origin of the theory of evolution was at the Galapagos islands where the species on the
island had similarities and distinct differences to those of the mainland in South America.
TR Malthus's book, an essay on the principle of populations: Malthus posited that when the
population of a country increases, the increase in the available food and other resources
does not keep pace. Malthus expressed his proposition in mathematical terms to show that
populations tend to increase and that this is accompanied by a decline in the food supply,
until the carrying capacity of the environment is exceeded, which leads to the demise of the
population. This is when he thought that "struggle to survive" as the driving force behind the
change in natural species, that led to the concept of natural selection.
Alfred Wallace published an article in which he stated that a new species could arise from an
older one and replace the older one.Darwin received a manuscript from Wallace in the post
entitled "On the tendencies of new varieties to depart infinitely from the original type". In this
article Wallace described the struggle for survival, and argued that it was the pressure or
force that led to the emergence of new species.
Write a summary reflecting on the criticism of and the controversy surrounding the theory of
evolution.
Religious reasons against naturalism . Naturalists believe that species were created at the
beginning of the world- a single pair of each species multiplying but remaining unchanged
thereafter. Two main serious criticisms are the question of time, many people did not believe
that the earth was old enough for evolution to take place, only now do we know that the
earth is several billion years old. The other serious criticism is the question of variation
because the basis of heredity was unknown at the time.
,Chapter 2
You are a successful palaeontologist and you have found a sedimentary rock layer
containing a possible Miohippus fossil (a type of horse). Explain and give reasons for the
dating techniques you would use to determine the age of the fossil.
Stratigraphy is a fossil dating method that places fossils in relative sequence to each other,
sheets of similar rock, strata, layered one upon another, are built up in chronological order.
The oldest rock at the bottom. One could compare the fossil found to other fossils in the
same strata.
Radiometric dating is a method that measures the half life of an isotope, which is the length
of time that must pass before half the atoms in the original sample transform into the
product. Because isotopes transform into a more stable product. One could measure the half
life of the isotopes in the surrounding rock of the fossil in order to estimate the age of the
fossil.
Define the following terms:
Geological time
A system of chronological dating that relates geological strata (stratigraphy) to time. It is
used by geologists, palaeontologists and other earth scientists to describe the timing and
relationships of events that have occurred during earth's history.
Continental drift
A theory that explains how continents shift position on the earth's surface and why look-alike
animal and plant fossils, and similar rock formations, are found on different continents.
Fossils
Any preserved evidence of life from a past geological age, such as the impressions and
remains of organisms embedded in stratified rocks. The mineralised remains of an animal or
plant. Having the characteristic, or pertaining to the nature, of a fossil.
Stratigraphy
The arrangement of rocks in layers or strata.
Explain the controversies surrounding the dating of the earth.
According to charles darwin's theory of natural selection, the earth is much older than what
was suggested at the time and caused speculations. Lord kelvin stated that safe surface
temperatures for life would have reached only a few million years years ago which
contradicted the theory of evolution and the gradual evolution of species.
, Chapter 3
Discuss the following major transitions of life:
a. Oldest rocks in Africa, Australia and Greenland
Rocks from Australia yield a tich set of single-celled microfossils. The oldest rocks are 3.5
billion years old and contain impressions of filamentous and single-celled microorganisms
and even chemical fossils. Although scant and microscopic, the fossil record of early earth
history speaks of life.
b. The carbon basis of life
Life on earth is built on carbon. Carbon is stable but reacts favorably with useful elements
such as hydrogen and nitrogen, and it easily forms stable complexes, making it the
molecular backbone of proteins, carbohydrates and fats. Organic chemistry is based on
carbon.
c. The composition of atmospheric gases 4 to 4,6 million years ago
The atmosphere 4 to 4.6 billion years ago lacked free oxygen and was conposed of
hydrogen, methane gas (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2) and Nitrogen (N2) possibly form the
basic organic building blocks of life.
d. The principles of the Miller-Urey experiment
Is a simulation of the earth 4 million years ago in an enclosed laboratory system along with
water, then heated with electric sparks to simulate lightning. In short order, organic
molecules, some rather complex, formed within simulation.
Distinguish between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotes are microorganisms with organic molecules and DNA enclosed by a plasma
membrane which defines the boundaries of the cell. Also present are the cell wall, ribosomes
and cytoplasm. The cellular DNA is free within the cytoplasm, and there is no nuclear
membrane. Prokaryotic heterotrophs are strictly nourished by other organisms and
prokaryotic autotrophs are self-nourishing. Eukaryote cells are more complex than
prokaryote cells. The cellular DNA is enclosed in a specialised membrane called the
nucleus. This cell contains numerous organelles, membrane-bound compartments dedicated
to particular cellular functions, e.g. mitochondrion, vacuole and chloroplasts. Furthermore,
the cell has a cell wall and different membranes.
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