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Summary AQA Sociology Alevel paper 1/3 Theory topic summaries
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These notes are concise summaries including specific sociologists for the AQA Sociology Alevel course- theory unit. I got an A* with these notes.
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Theory topic summariesPositivists and Interpretivists
Structuralist theory- society controls and shapes our actions through social structures. Structuralist’s tend to
use positivist methodology.
Social Action Theory- our actions shape society as we have free will. Social action theorists tend to be
interpretivists in their methodology.
Structural theory- actions determined by society, Marxism, functionalism, social facts which we can measure,
macro perspectives, can objectively measure patterns of behaviour, gather data and find causation.
Social action theory- we have free will, study motives and meanings behind actions, symbolic interactionism,
phenomenology, micro perspectives.
Positivists- use scientific methods, quantitative methods, experiments, structured interviews, questionnaires,
Official statistics; we can create laws of human behaviour through inductive reasoning.
Interpretivists- research methods should uncover meanings (verstehen), qualitative methods, participant
observation, unstructured interviews, and documents.
Feminists- radical, liberal and Marxist are structuralist but use interpretivist methods as positivist methods
wouldn’t give women a voice. Intersectional feminists combine social action and structuralist theory.
Positivists:
Apply natural sciences to the study of society as believe there is true objective knowledge of what society is like
which can be used for solving social problems, society is made up of social facts.
Society is a real thing that exists ‘out there’ like an invisible force.
We uncover these laws of human behaviour through inductive reasoning by gathering data, identifying
patterns and trends; discover causes of these patterns by observing causal relationships between social facts.
Use these patterns to predict future events and guide social policies.
They like macro, structural explanations of social events as society shapes our behaviour.
Use experimental methods to test a hypothesis as variables can be isolated and quantitative data produced.
Researchers should be detached and objective to avoid researcher bias, focus on reliability.
Criticised by interpretivists for looking at society on macro level ignores individual experiences and meanings,
social facts may ignore verstehen so methods lack validity.
Interpretivists:
Sociology is the study of ‘meaningful actions’ so must examine meanings and motives of individuals actions.
Sociology is the study of people who have consciousness as people make sense of the world and create it by
attaching meanings to it.
It is the study of people’s ideas rather than the study of an external structure so its job is to explain why people
do what they do so prefer qualitative data and methods high in validity.
Need to look at the world through others eyes and Weber calls this verstehen- empathetic understanding.
Positivists criticise for ignoring the cause and effect relationships in society, looking at society on a micro scale
underestimates influence of structures in society and criticise for their recognition that society is socially
constructed rather than based on social facts.
Structuration Theory (Giddens-postmodernist):
Argues there is duality of structure as through our actions we produce and reproduce structures, whilst
structures are what make our actions possible. This relationship is called structuration.
E.g. language = a structure, but our action depends on it
Reproduce existing structures through our actions due to need for ontological security = need to feel the world
is real and stable.
Reflexively monitor our actions, deliberately choose a new course of action OR actions have intended
consequences which change society.
Giddens’ theory bring structuralist and social action theories together as he says you have to use a variety of
positivist and interpretivist methodology as you can’t have one theory without the other.
Evaluation: not easy to change structures e.g. slaves lack power to resist slavery, Craib – structures are bigger
than rules and routines in everyday life, people’s actions can’t change large structures like the economy or the
state.
, Theory topic summaries
Functionalist theory
Functionalism is a consensus structural theory (only consensus theory) and is a modern theory as it is a theory
about modernity rather than late or post modernity.
Durkheim:
Society works like a human body- ‘organic analogy’ as each institution in society helps meet certain basic needs
(functionalist prerequisites) for society.
Nothing exists in society if it doesn’t have a function and society is more important than the individual so it is
everyone’s responsibility to ensure society functions and survives.
Functionalism emphasises harmony, unity and integration between all parts of society.
It is essential society’s structure is based on consensus and value consensus must be constantly reinforced so it
does not waste away and cause anomie. This is why there are positive and negative sanctions for actions.
Strengths: true institutions do link to each other and mainstream society does uphold key values.
Limitations: Assumes all institutions are functional or function well but this is not the case e.g police,
postmodernists argue society is becoming separate so there is little value consensus and social solidarity is
deterministic, conflict theories argue there is not consensus in society and Marxists argue ti is not enforcing
values of everyone but values of the ruling class.
Parsons:
He argues society is like a body because it has systems, system needs and functions.
Social order is achieved through the existence of a shared culture or central value system.
Society has 4 basic needs split into instrumental and expressive needs.
Instrumental: Adaption (adapt to environment e.g more houses or jobs), Goal Attainment (society needs to
set goals and means to achieve them)
Expressive: Integration (systems must be integrated to achieve goals and belonging e.g religion and education)
and latency (maintain society over time e.g family)
Parsons structural differentiation theory: process whereby separate institutions develop each meeting a
different need e.g shift from extended family to nuclear family.
He says institutions change to adapt to society and institutions lose functions and become more specialist
Evaluation: Merton’s internal critique: There is alternative ways for a function to happen e.g socialisation is
just as effective as a nuclear family in a gay parent family. In modern society some institutions are only
distantly related so instead of functional unity there is functional autonomy. He also states there may be
conflicts of interest as some things are functional for one group and dysfunctional for others. Key point- we
cannot simply assume as Parsons does that society is always a well-integrated and smooth-running system.
External critiques: Postmodernists say it can’t account for diversity and instability in modern society; an overall
structuralist theory like functionalism is no longer possible as today’s society is fragmented. Social action critics
argue functionalists underestimate free will in society over our actions.
Marxism
Traditional Marxism:
Bourgeoisie control capitalist society as they’re the owners of means of production- land and resources
The R/C therefore control society’s financial infrastructure (economy/workforce) and thus get to control
society’s superstructures (education, arts, CJS, Gov. etc.)
Capitalism leads to and depends on the exploitation of the w/c who only survives through selling labour power.
Instead of paying w/c the full value of their labour the r/c force w/c to over produce (surplus value) and the
profit from this extra production goes to r/c- links to alienation as w/c can’t afford products they make.
Capitalism creates class conflict so to prevent rebellion r/c socialise w/c to accept capitalism as natural and
benefiting them.
R/C passes on dominant ideology to w/c to create false class consciousness spread through institutions such as
education, Family, CJS and religion.
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