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Summary A Level Psychology Paper 3 A* 16 marker essay plans
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Issues and DebatesDiscuss the free will and determinism debate in psychology. (16 marks)
A01
- The debate is whether our behaviour is determined by factors outside of our control (eg. biological genes and
hormones, situational factors such as the environment) or individuals are free to choose how to behave.
- Free will is the view that we play an active role and are free to choose how we behave, and are self-determined.
- For example, people can make a free choice whether to commit a crime or not, and are held accountable
for their own actions, with the exception of young children and the mentally ill, as reflected in the law.
- Thus, individuals are responsible for their own actions, and it is impossible to predict human behaviour
with any precision.
- This is the basic assumption of the humanistic approach, where Maslow and Rogers believed that
humans are unique and plan their own actions according to their subjective experiences.
- Determinism is the view that free will is an illusion, and that our behaviour is governed by internal or external
forces over which we have no control, and thus behaviour is predictable.
- Hard determinism - traits and behaviour are entirely out of the individual’s control
- Soft determinism - traits and behaviour are determined by external and internal forces(eg. Environment
or biological make-up) but an individual can still exercise some control eg. via thought processes.
- Types of determinism in psychology
- Biological determinism - the idea that traits and behaviours are governed by internal biological factors,
like genes, neurochemistry, brain structure and function - biology is destiny. For example, Chorley et al.
found a statistically significant association between IQ test scores and the IGF2r gene on chromosome
six, suggesting that intelligence is to some extent biologically determined.
- Environmental determinism - the idea that traits and behaviours are governed by external forces such as
experiences, upbringing, learning, schools, parents, peers. For example, phobias are learnt through
classical conditioning, and Bandura found that children with violent parents are more likely to become
violent parents themselves, as a result of observational learning.
- Psychic determinism - the idea that traits and behaviours are governed by unconscious instincts and
drives (eg. ID, ego, superego), the cause of behaviour is rooted in childhood experiences, such as that
shown in Freud’s model of psychological development.
A03
- Strength of determinism
- It is consistent with the aims of science. The idea that psychology aims to create general laws which
predict events puts it on equal footing with other established sciences. These predictions have allowed
psychology to develop treatments for disorders, such as schizophrenia, which shows that the idea of
determinism has helped understand and explain mental illnesses, and to clinically assist patients.
- Limitation of determinism
- Humanistic psychologists argue against determinism, as they claim that humans have self-determination
and free will, and that behaviour is not the result of any single cause.
- For example, identical twin studies found an 80% similarity in intelligence scores, and a 40% similarity
in the likelihood for depression. However, as they share 100% of their genes, it shows that 20% is
caused by other (environmental) factors.
- This shows that biological determinism cannot fully explain behaviour like depression or intelligence.
- Limitation of determinism
- Many psychologists and legal experts claim that this view provides a potential excuse for criminal acts.
- For example, in 1981, Stephen Mobley argued that he was ‘born to kill’ after killing a pizza shop
manager, because his family had a disposition towards violence and aggressive behaviour.
- Thus, a hard determinism view is undesirable as it provides an excuse for people to mitigate their own
liability and could lead to vexing legal issues regarding the nature of responsibility and intent.
- Thus, a soft determinism approach may be more reasonable as it considers the idea of free will.
- Limitation of free will
- However, there is criticism to the idea of free will. Skinner argued that free will is an illusion, and that
behaviour is environmentally determined.
- For example, Libet et al. found that motor regions of the brain become more active before conscious
awareness of a decision, suggesting that many responses are biologically determined.
- However, it is apparent that behaviour is too complex to be explained solely with biology which draws
us back to the conclusion that a soft determinism is a more valid compromise to explain behaviour.
,Discuss the idiographic and nomothetic debate in psychology. (16 marks)
The idiographic approach focuses on the individual and the recognition of uniqueness, and each person’s subjective
experiences. This approach is effective for in-depth understanding of an individual. It places emphasis on subjective, and
non-standardized (i.e. less scientific) procedures, such as using case studies and unstructured interviews. Its findings are
inappropriate for generalisation as data found is qualitative.
For example, humanistic psychology uses the idiographic approach because there is a strong focus on the individual. This is
as Maslow and Rogers were only interested in documenting the conscious experience of the individual or ‘self’ rather than
producing general laws of behaviour.
On the other hand, the nomothetic approach attempts to establish laws and generalisations about people and is effective for
systematic analysis and prediction of behaviour. It is more reliable and uses scientific methods such as experiments, with
studies based on large groups of people, which then produces quantitative and numerical data.
For example, biological psychologists take a nomothetic approach when explaining psychological disorders, such as OCD
and depression. They typically pinpoint biological factors, such as neurotransmitters, that are responsible for such disorders
and use biological therapies (e.g. drugs) to treat all patients.
The idiographic approach is unable to produce general laws or predictions about human behaviour, thus severely limiting its
usefulness as a source of practical knowledge about the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. The emphasis on
in-depth data collection and the difficulties of arriving at justifiable generalisations contradicts the central purpose of any
mature science: to explain the most variation in the fewest possible terms so that phenomena can be predicted and ultimately
controlled. Research practices that do not address these goals can seem scientifically pointless.
However, a strength of an idiographic approach is that it provides rich data. For example, the case study of KF exposed a
limitation of the MSM by showing that our STM comprises at least two components (auditory and visual memory) and not
one, as stipulated by Atkinson and Shiffrin. Thus, a single case can highlight flaws within a theory, and generate further
research and in-depth insight into a particular phenomenon, contributing to the development of new theories, highlighting a
strength of the idiographic approach to psychological investigations.
A limitation of idiographic approach is that it lacks scientific rigour. As methods associated with this approach, eg. case
studies are less scientific as judgements are based on subjective interpretations of the researcher and so is open to bias. For
example, Freud’s concept of the Oedipus complex was developed from a single detailed study of Little Hans. Thus,
meaningful generalisations cannot be made as studies rely on personal subjective interpretations of the researcher, and thus is
open to bias, making the approach less scientific.
On the other hand, the nomothetic approach is considered scientific. This approach uses experimental, controlled methods
and has the ability to predict behaviour. Thus, researchers can replicate research to examine the reliability of findings, which
helps psychological laws and theories to be empirically tested.
Furthermore, as it is scientific, this approach is useful for controlling and predicting behaviour. For example, biological
psychologists claim that OCD is caused by low levels of serotonin and high levels of dopamine. Thus, drug therapies can be
created and work to readdress these hormone imbalances. SSRIs are used to treat OCD as they increase serotonin, thus
reducing anxiety associated with OCD, improving the lives of sufferers of this condition.
However, some argue that the nomothetic approach loses sight of the ‘whole person’ due to its fixation on quantitative data
and statistical analysis. For example, Milgram found that 65% of participants obeyed an authority figure by inflicting a
450-volt electric shock. However, results fail to provide an explanation of why each person obeyed, and there may have been
very different circumstances that led to the obedience found in each participant.
In reality, some ultimately believe that the idiographic and nomothetic debate is a false distinction. Many approaches take
advantage of both approaches, and thus they can be viewed as complementary rather than contradictory. Psychologists can
employ both methods depending on the nature of their research, rendering this distinction meaningless.
, Discuss ethical implications of research studies in psychology, including reference to social sensitivity. (16 marks)
A01
- Ethical implications consider the effects and consequences of psychological research on the rights of the
participants taking part as well as other people in a wider context.
- According to Siber and Stanley, socially sensitive research are studies where there are potential social
consequences for participants or the group of individuals represented by the research.
- Findings of ethical implications can lead to change in allocation of resources nationwide and economic
implications such as funding for future psychological research. This can lead to political consequences, such as
changes in legislation for the better, such as providing maternal leave benefits regardless of how long they have
worked for their employer. However, such research can also lead to potential bias against people of certain cultures
or socioeconomic backgrounds.
A02
- Milgram’s obedience research
- There are several ethical issues as participants in his study were highly deceived and were unable to give
fully informed consent. It caused distress (such as trembling, sweating etc.) and they felt that they could
not withdraw due to the nature of the verbal prods. Although participants were debriefed afterwards, they
may continue to feel guilt for obeying authority to potentially cause harm to another individual.
- Moreover, his research was also socially sensitive as it may have changed attitudes to people of different
nationalities, such as Germans who were significantly more obedient, with 85% of participants
administering electric shocks up to 450 volts.
- Bowlby’s monotropic theory and effects on child-rearing/ working mothers
- He claimed that children must form a special attachment bond with their mothers during the critical
period as it acts as an internal working model for future relationships. His theory implies that a woman’s
role is to be the primary care giver in a home, which may make women feel guilty for returning to work.
- It also has implications on the father who may be discouraged to be the carer and to only act as a
‘playmate’, which can also cause single parent fathers concern over their ability to form attachments.
A03
- Current ethical guidelines do not address indirect implications for people in society
- For example, Cyril Burt’s twin study showed concordance rates in intelligence, supporting the claim the
intelligence was genetic. His findings influenced policy changes for 11+ exams used for entry into
selective ‘grammar schools’, where children were separated based on their ‘natural intelligence’.
- This ethical implication caused segregation in education between rich and poor students, as the rich
could afford private tutoring to pass the exam to enter better grammar schools. Thus, ethical guidelines
should consider the applications of findings, to reduce future negative implications on society.
- Strength of Sieber and Stanley
- Considerations of ethical concerns provided a mechanism to safeguard individuals who are indirectly
affected by psychological research, which is not considered in current guidelines as they simply focus on
the direct effects of research on participants but not the way it may inflict harm to others in society.
- Their suggestion ensures that psychological research has no indirect harm to other members of society,
especially marginalised groups (eg. those with disabilities, the elderly, the economically disadvantaged),
as they are largely excluded for research, and may be harmed by its conclusions and applications.
- Socially sensitive research can lead to and justify discrimination
- For example, Robert Yerkes conducted an IQ test in the US Army and published findings that black
Americans had lower IQ scores than white Americans, which has led to social implications. For
example, the findings were used to justify racial discrimination and prejudice, such as limiting black
access to universities, and justifying involuntary sterilisation of 2000 black US women in 1907-1963.
- This highlights flawed application of results and negative impact for wider society, thus some believe
that socially sensitive research should not be conducted. However, without this research, we would only
have trivial research to investigate. Thus, a better solution is to engage more actively with policy makers
after publishing to ensure that their data is not misused and that it is used in socially sensitive ways.
- Good practical applications
- For example, research on eye-witness testimony (EWT) found that children can be reliable witnesses if
they are questioned in a timely and appropriate manner. Social sensitive research has facilitated a good
working relationship between psychologists and the legal profession to help improve the accuracy and
validity of children's EWT, reduce wrongful conviction rates, thus has useful practical applications.
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