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PYC1501 Complete Guide to Basic Psychology module 2022
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Complete guide to the module of Basic Psychology: PYC1501
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Introducing Psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. The word “psychology‖ comes from the
Greek words “psyche,‖ meaning life, and “logos,‖ meaning explanation. Psychology is a popular
major for students, a popular topic in the public media, and a part of our everyday lives.
Television shows such as Dr. Phil feature psychologists who provide personal advice to those
with personal or family difficulties. Crime dramas such as CSI, Lie to Me, and others feature the
work of forensic psychologists who use psychological principles to help solve crimes. And many
people have direct knowledge about psychology because they have visited psychologists, for
instance, school counselors, family therapists, and religious, marriage, or bereavement
counselors.
Because we are frequently exposed to the work of psychologists in our everyday lives, we all
have an idea about what psychology is and what psychologists do. In many ways I am sure that
your conceptions are correct. Psychologists do work in forensic fields, and they do provide
counseling and therapy for people in distress. But there are hundreds of thousands of
psychologists in the world, and most of them work in other places, doing work that you are
probably not aware of.
Most psychologists work in research laboratories, hospitals, and other field settings where they
study the behavior of humans and animals. For instance, my colleagues in the Psychology
Department at the University of Maryland study such diverse topics as anxiety in children, the
interpretation of dreams, the effects of caffeine on thinking, how birds recognize each other, how
praying mantises hear, how people from different cultures react differently in negotiation, and
the factors that lead people to engage in terrorism. Other psychologists study such topics as
alcohol and drug addiction, memory, emotion, hypnosis, love, what makes people aggressive or
helpful, and the psychologies of politics, prejudice, culture, and religion. Psychologists also work
in schools and businesses, and they use a variety of methods, including observation,
questionnaires, interviews, and laboratory studies, to help them understand behavior.
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This chapter provides an introduction to the broad field of psychology and the many approaches
that psychologists take to understanding human behavior. We will consider how psychologists
conduct scientific research, with an overview of some of the most important approaches used and
topics studied by psychologists, and also consider the variety of fields in which psychologists
work and the careers that are available to people with psychology degrees. I expect that you may
find that at least some of your preconceptions about psychology will be challenged and changed,
and you will learn that psychology is a field that will provide you with new ways of thinking
about your own thoughts, feelings, and actions.
1.1 Psychology as a Science
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Explain why using our intuition about everyday behavior is insufficient for a complete understanding of the
causes of behavior.
2. Describe the difference between values and facts and explain how the scientific method is used to
differentiate between the two.
Despite the differences in their interests, areas of study, and approaches, all psychologists have
one thing in common: They rely on scientific methods. Research psychologists use scientific
methods to create new knowledge about the causes of behavior, whereas psychologist-
practitioners, such as clinical, counseling, industrial-organizational, and school psychologists,
use existing research to enhance the everyday life of others. The science of psychology is
important for both researchers and practitioners.
In a sense all humans are scientists. We all have an interest in asking and answering questions
about our world. We want to know why things happen, when and if they are likely to happen
again, and how to reproduce or change them. Such knowledge enables us to predict our own
behavior and that of others. We may even collect data (i.e., any information collected through
formal observation or measurement) to aid us in this undertaking. It has been argued that people
are “everyday scientists‖ who conduct research projects to answer questions about behavior
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(Nisbett & Ross, 1980). [1] When we perform poorly on an important test, we try to understand
what caused our failure to remember or understand the material and what might help us do better
the next time. When our good friends Monisha and Charlie break up, despite the fact that they
appeared to have a relationship made in heaven, we try to determine what happened. When we
contemplate the rise of terrorist acts around the world, we try to investigate the causes of this
problem by looking at the terrorists themselves, the situation around them, and others’ responses
to them.
The Problem of Intuition
The results of these “everyday‖ research projects can teach us many principles of human
behavior. We learn through experience that if we give someone bad news, he or she may blame
us even though the news was not our fault. We learn that people may become depressed after
they fail at an important task. We see that aggressive behavior occurs frequently in our society,
and we develop theories to explain why this is so. These insights are part of everyday social life.
In fact, much research in psychology involves the scientific study of everyday behavior (Heider,
1958; Kelley, 1967). [2]
The problem, however, with the way people collect and interpret data in their everyday lives is
that they are not always particularly thorough. Often, when one explanation for an event seems
“right,‖ we adopt that explanation as the truth even when other explanations are possible and
potentially more accurate. For example, eyewitnesses to violent crimes are often extremely
confident in their identifications of the perpetrators of these crimes. But research finds that
eyewitnesses are no less confident in their identifications when they are incorrect than when they
are correct (Cutler & Wells, 2009; Wells & Hasel, 2008). [3] People may also become convinced
of the existence of extrasensory perception (ESP), or the predictive value of astrology, when
there is no evidence for either (Gilovich, 1993). [4] Furthermore, psychologists have also found
that there are a variety of cognitive and motivational biases that frequently influence our
perceptions and lead us to draw erroneous conclusions (Fiske & Taylor, 2007; Hsee & Hastie,
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2006). [5] In summary, accepting explanations for events without testing them thoroughly may
lead us to think that we know the causes of things when we really do not.
Research Focus: Unconscious Preferences for the Letters of Our Own Name
A study reported in the Journal of Consumer Research (Brendl, Chattopadhyay, Pelham, & Carvallo,
[6]
2005) demonstrates the extent to which people can be unaware of the causes of their own behavior. The
research demonstrated that, at least under certain conditions (and although they do not know it), people
frequently prefer brand names that contain the letters of their own name to brand names that do not
contain the letters of their own name.
The research participants were recruited in pairs and were told that the research was a taste test of
different types of tea. For each pair of participants, the experimenter created two teas and named them by
adding the word stem ―oki‖ to the first three letters of each participant‘s first name. For example, for
Jonathan and Elisabeth, the names of the teas would have been Jonoki and Elioki.
The participants were then shown 20 packets of tea that were supposedly being tested. Eighteen packets
were labeled with made-up Japanese names (e.g., ―Mataku‖ or ―Somuta‖), and two were labeled with the
brand names constructed from the participants‘ names. The experimenter explained that each participant
would taste only two teas and would be allowed to choose one packet of these two to take home.
One of the two participants was asked to draw slips of paper to select the two brands that would be tasted
at this session. However, the drawing was rigged so that the two brands containing the participants‘ name
stems were always chosen for tasting. Then, while the teas were being brewed, the participants completed
a task designed to heighten their needs for self-esteem, and that was expected to increase their desire to
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