There are notes from all the lectures given. First is the respiratory system lectures, then the cardiovascular system and renal system which were term 1. The nervous system kicks off in term two followed by the digestive system and finally the neuromuscular system. Pictures are attached throughout ...
Understanding Human Anatomy and Physiology: 21/01/20 Dr. Carpenter
Interested in molecular interaction/reactions and how they move in certain parts of the cell.
Molecules>organelles>cell membrane>cells>tissues>organs>organ systems. Arrangement of
cells are important in function, along with size/shape of cell (fat, long, etc). Cells with the same
functional role are tissues (skeletal muscle tissue for example). Different layers of the cells exist
within the tissue, like the gut for example. Blood vessels connected to the heart are thought of
as an organ. Organs exist, but as do organ systems (like vesicular system). Different tissues,
different organs exist within an organ system. Plus, some can/must work together-respiratory
and cardiovascular system (air and blood flow). Inter relationships are important in keeping
homeostasis. Do not think of things individually, but rather develop an understanding of
functions and processes so you can confidently explain physiological interactions with ease.
Homeostasis-the tendency towards a dynamic equilibrium between interdependent elements.
Homeo-constant (keeping it there, not the same like homo). Stasis-a state or condition. So,
maintaining a constant state. Variables do not stay the same for long, so regulatory processes
are needed in the body to make the adjustments automatically.
Always ask questions: what-functional mechanism, where-location and structure, when-situation
OR time, how-process, why-functional significance. Difference: what-oxygen is supplied to a
cell, why-occurs because we need that cell to respire. Each question followed by “it occurs”.
Homeostasis examples now: maintaining consistency with a variable. Global variables, clinical
variables.
Thermoregulation-affects many organ systems. Hot and dehydrate-affects body fluids (ECM,
mostly outside cells in blood plasma). Must be kept normal (solute concentration affected) or
else affects intracellular fluid (intracellular fluid is bathed in ECM). Body knows that, so must be
kept with homeostasis. Plasma in blood, so dehydration affects blood volume, which affects low
blood pressure, and we faint. Kidneys help conserve water, osmoreceptors detect high
concentration of solutes-detect osmolarity of body fluids-in brain, too, which thirst sensation
occurs so we drink water to address the balance. Regulate blood pressure, so heart rate goes
up, blood vessels constrict to increase blood pressure. Challenge is external environment.
Elderly are more susceptible to hypothermia because control mechanisms are deteriorated. 18
degrees might be thought of as too warm (sense cold is deteriorated). Poor Martin.
Exercise-develop muscle tissue around bones. Stay in bed for a year and no exercise, muscle
mass descrease, bones crumble and go weak. Slip over and break leg and hip, bed for more
time-elderly. They increase a risk of mortality. Challenge is metabolic and thermoregularatory.
Rest to exercise-how does it control and keep temp down so we don’t get hyperthermia. Lots of
interactions. Any problem usually puts them on a bike and see how the person reacts-program
of rehabilitation to increase performance and make heart stronger. Different muscle fibres for
strength and power vs endurance and stamina.
Respiratory disease affecting lung function-two components: restrictive and obstructive. COPD
from cigarettes, over 35 years of age is bad. Risk, how much you smoke and what to find out
the damage it will cause. Huge functional reserve in human bodies. Much larger than it needs at
rest-can chop out a lobe of lung and still run, be OK with one kidney but don’t drink much.
Diabetes (associated with obesity): huge problem with NHS costs. Metabolism here, how it is
used to control weight and lower chance of disease.
,Anorexia: change as get older so no sensation you need to eat/drink, again deterioration.
Elderly again with their age.
Simple control system: two systems-nervous system and endocrine system! To be controlled,
key elements are an input signal, controller, and output signal. Input-collects information about a
variable, interprets it on its own way and respond-with a change. Efferent nerves. Controller in
human body-brain and spinal cord. Central nervous system controls, by picking up information
about change in the body (temp, CO2 in blood (kinoreceptors)). Through nueroprocessing it
gives a different response from peripheral nerves to the organs. Efferent nerves-going away
from spinal cord to go to the target organs. Endocrine glands-can be regulated by surroundings
or stimulus from brain/spinal cord; system of control is the same though.
Fight or flight response when giving presentations-anxious because of fear of presenting, so
shaky hands and dry mouth are signals. Brain sends signals to organs to help prepare you.
Heart rate goes up, glucose from liver is released, adrenaline (epinephrine) from adrenal gland.
To work, must either have negative or positive feedback mechanism. Positive, usually just in
pregnancy (oxytocin to get baby out when baby presses on cervix).input- Low oxygen in blood
(climbing a mountain-thinner air because molecules have density and oxygen level is lower
(pressure, amount is still 21%) and causes less pressure), kemoreceptors in blood so oxygen
drops by 40% then Mandela in brain stimulates muscles of diaphragm and thorax and breath
deeper and faster, creating greater pressure so more oxygen into lungs. Sends signals to heart,
heart rate goes up, increase blood flow so oxygen goes to cells-Speeds up what oxygen is there
to go to the cells. Oxygen goes up, then negative input signal which is why it’s a neg feedback
loop; in pregnancy the pushing needs greater contractions so more oxytocin.
Learning physiology: start with the stimulus (what changes, variable). We need to know basic
variables and consistency values (like in endocrine with ranges. pH should be 7.4 or so,
different times of day. Must know the
organism in homeostasis, then the
external/internal change (external-pH
can be changed with food/drink;
internal-walking up stairs (anaerobic
glycolysis, produces lactic acid)). The
change results in loss of homeostasis,
so organism attempts to
compensate-respiratory system lowers
pH of body fluid and excess acid is gone
with kidney (liver metabolises acids).
Compensation fails, then we get ill, could
lead to disease OR compensation
succeeds, and wellness occurs.
Picture: shows connection of systems.
11th organ system is immune. Digestive
is only one with two holes, exposed
more than others, so systems must be in
place to process food and get rid of
,waste, as well as be protected. Integrates with cardiovascular, has own nervous system (mini
brain-enteric nervous system). Gut must move and contract so needs blood. Lots of connections
really as many need others to sustain and carry out function (blood and oxygen needed
usually). Kidneys, ¼ of cardiac output.
Person working on a hot, dry day-find the key words then solve those stresses
(working-produces heat, exercise; hot-water needed; dry). 37 is normal body temp.
Thermoreceptors detects the change. Sweat to cool down body surface (cools down
skin/blood). Breathing heavily (losing moisture through breath). Dehydration as well.
Body water lost by evaporation, loss of ECF decrease in blood volume and pressure, internal
receptors sense change in blood volume and pressure, cardiovascular centre in brain changes
the heart rate, thirst is stimulated, and body water and blood pressure is stored (negative
feedback up to internal receptors step). People need to go into shade and listen to thirst.
Chapter One pgs. 37-54
Emergent properties-properties that cannot be predicted to exist based on only knowledge of a
system’s individual components; greater than the simple sum of its parts. Like breaking a car
into its nuts and bolts and knowing that it can convert fuel to power movement. For humans,
intelligence, emotion, and other brain functions are derived from many molecules, which cannot
be predicted based on knowing the individual properties of nerve cells alone. Human Genome
Project thought they would know everything from genes, but they do not; now is
proteomics-study of proteins in living organisms. The integration of function across many levels
of organization is a special focus of physiology. Tissues-collection of cells that carry out related
functions. The integumentary system, composed of the skin, forms a protective boundary that
separates the body’s internal environment from the external environment. The musculoskeletal
system provides support and body movement. Four systems exchange materials between the
internal and external environments. The respiratory (pulmonary) system exchanges gases; the
digestive (gastrointestinal) system takes up nutrients and water and eliminates wastes; the
urinary (renal) system removes excess water and waste material; and the reproductive system
produces eggs or sperm. The remaining four systems extend throughout the body. The
circulatory (cardiovascular) system distributes materials by pumping blood through the vessels.
The nervous and endocrine systems coordinate body functions. The immune system, however,
has specialised cells scattered throughout the body; the lymphatic system is a part of it.
, Thinking about a physiological event in terms of its adaptive significance is the teleological
approach to science. For example, the teleological answer to the question of why red blood cells
transport oxygen is “because cells need oxygen and red blood cells bring it to them.” This
answer explains why red blood cells transport oxygen—their function—but says nothing about
how the cells transport oxygen. In contrast, most physiologists study physiological processes, or
mechanisms—the “how” of a system. The mechanistic approach to physiology examines
process. The mechanistic answer to the question “How do red blood cells transport oxygen?” is
“Oxygen binds to hemoglobin molecules in the red blood cells.” This very concrete answer
explains exactly how oxygen transport occurs but says nothing about the significance of oxygen
transport to the animal. Mechanisms are possible to understand without knowing their function.
Translational research, an approach sometimes described as “bench to bedside.” Translational
research uses the insights and results gained from basic biomedical research on mechanisms
to develop treatments and strategies for preventing human diseases.
Common themes: structure and function across all levels of organization; energy transfer,
storage, and use; information flow, storage, and use within single organisms and
within a species of organism; homeostasis and the control systems that maintain it;
and evolution.
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