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Summary Ultimate Study Guide for Human&Society
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Perfect study guide for the course "Human & Society". All topics and definitions are discussed and explained!
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PROBLEM 1: WHO AM I?THE SELF-CONCEPT
Humans are very selective in their attention and we tend to pay a lot of it to the self.
Self-concept = all the beliefs people have about themselves.
It is made up of schemas = beliefs about the self that guide the process of self-relevant
information. One can for example be schematic/a-schematic with regards to weight.
You tend to accentuate traits that distinguish you from people that are close to you.
Self-recognition is the first clear expression of the concept ‘me’.
Looking-glass self = other people serve as a mirror in which we see ourselves. We
often come to know ourselves by imagining what significant others think of us and then
we incorporate this into our self-concept.
Our self-concepts match our perceptions of what others think of us.
WHERE DOES OUR SELF-CONCEPT COME FROM?
INTROSPECTION
= looking at one’s own thoughts and feelings.
It can actually impair one’s self knowledge, because:
Ø Humans are so busy processing information and fail to understand our own
feelings/thoughts/behavior.
Ø People overestimate the positives.
Ø People have difficulty with effective forecasting. We overestimate how we will
feel about something in the future = impact bias, because:
o People underestimate the ability of psychological coping mechanisms to
ease the shock in case of a negative event.
o We become so focused on a single event, that we neglect the impact of
others.
SELF - PERCEPTION
= people learn about the self by watching their own behavior and making inferences
about themselves.
Limits of self-perception
Ø We only learn about ourselves in this way when the situation alone seems
insufficient to have caused our behavior.
Vicarious self-perception = make inferences about our self based on the behavior of
someone we identify with.
INTROSPECTION VS. SELF-PERCEPTION
Introspection means you know yourself better than anyone else. Self-perception means
that it is possible for others to know you as well as you know yourself. The truth
probably lies somewhere in the middle.
Is it even possible for others to know us as well as we know ourselves?
, SOKA: Self-Other Knowledge Asymmetry
è Internal traits: hard to observe. We know ourselves better. è
External traits: no self-other difference, or others know us better.
Facial feedback hypothesis = changes in facial expression can trigger corresponding
changes in the subjective experience of emotion.
Facial expressions may affect emotion through self-perception (I’m smiling so I must be
happy).
The reasons for this phenomenon are still unclear.
SELF-PERCEPTIONS OF MOTIVATIONS
Twain’s hypothesis: getting a reward for an enjoyable activity can take away the interest,
but isn’t that weird? It depends on the motivation behind it:
Ø Intrinsic motivation originates in factors within the person.
Ø Extrinsic motivation originates in factors outside a person (for tangible benefit).
Overjustification effect = diminished intrinsic motivation for activities that have
become associated with extrinsic factors (which can counteract performance).
The effect of the reward depends on the type and perception of it.
When changing someone’s social surroundings, you can change their spontaneous
selfdescription, because people highlight the characteristics that make them unique. This
shows that the self is relative: it is a social construct.
The social comparison theory holds that we evaluate our own abilities and opinions by
comparing ourselves to others.
We engage in social comparison in states of uncertainty, when more objective means of
self-assessment are not available. è We look to others that are similar to us in
relevant ways.
TWO-FACTOR THEORY OF EMOTION
2 factors are necessary to experience emotion:
Ø Physiological arousal
Ø Cognitive interpretation (reaction of people around us helps to interpret). When
people feel unclear about their own emotional states, they sometimes interpret how
they feel by watching others.
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORIES
Without these, we don’t have a self-concept.
Flashbulb memories = very detailed memories from remarkable moments.
Everyone’s memories are centered on the self.
When our self-concept changes, so does our perspective on the past.
,CULTURE AND THE SELF-CONCEPT
Cultures can value
- Individualism: independence, autonomy, based on personal goals, Western.
Strive for personal achievement. Individualists think they are unique.
- Collectivism: interdependence, cooperation, group’s interest, Eastern. Derive
satisfaction from the status of the valued group.
The value affects the way people perceive, evaluate and present themselves in relation to
others.
Dialecticism = acceptance of the coexistence of contradictory characteristics within a
single person (in collective cultures).
Individualists tend to think someone is either good or bad.
SELF-ESTEEM
= an affective component of the self, consisting of a person’s positive and negative
evaluations of the self.
WHY DO WE NEED SELF-ESTEEM?
The desire of self-esteem is driven by the need to connect with others and gain their
approval. We have a sociometer for this.
Humans are programmed for life and self-preservation, yet we are scared of death.
Humans cope with this fear of death by constructing world-views that help preserve their
self-esteem (= protective shield).
Self-esteem is defined by the (mis)match between how we see ourselves and how we
want to see ourselves: self-discrepancy theory.
Self-awareness theory = self-focused attention leads people to notice selfdiscrepancies.
Solutions to the self-discrepancies:
1. Shape up: get rid of
discrepancies by
changing behavior.
2. Shape out: get rid of
self-awareness.
The causes and effects of self-
awareness
Ø Private self-consciousness: introspect about inner thoughts/feelings.
Ø Public self-consciousness: focus on outer public image (social objects).
SELF - REGULATION
, = we seek to control/alter our thoughts/behavior etc. to live an acceptable social life. We
can get “tired”. There is a conflict between our desire and need for self-control.
People generally think they are better, especially when it comes to personally important
traits.
An unconscious and subtle expression of self-esteem. People hold themselves in high
regard. This happens across cultures.
4 WAYS TO ENHANCE SELF-ESTEEM:
People overestimate themselves. When we score low, the test was “inaccurate” or the
teacher was “biased”.
= behavior designed to sabotage one’s own performance in order to provide a
subsequent excuse for failure. Procrastination à preserve self-esteem.
Making excuses is one way to cope with the threatening implications of failure. It seems
like the ultimate paradox, but there are times when we purposely set ourselves up for
failure in order to preserve our precious self-esteem.
3. BASKING IN REFLECTED GLORY (BIRG)
= increasing self-esteem by associating with others who are successful.
Opposite = cut of reflected failure = not associating with people who failed.
4. DOWNWARD SOCIAL COMPARISON
= comparing yourself with others who are worse off.
Is it good to overestimate ourselves? Positive illusions can provoke happiness and realistic
views can cause sadness! But… too many positive illusions can work counterproductively.
CULTURE AND SELF-ESTEEM
The need for self-esteem is universal, but the drive toward self-enhancement is culturally
determined.
Individualism: Use self-enhancement tactics to stand out, confirm, and express
themselves.
Collectivists: Tend to maintain face in order to fit in, improve the self, and adjust
to the standards set by their groups.
SELF-PRESENTATION
= strategies used to influence what others think of you.
Spotlight effect = the belief that the social spotlight shines more brightly on you.
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