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Research Methodology HMPYC80The Sciences and the Professions
SCIENCE
Definition
• Scientific knowledge: the body of propositions (factual statements, hypotheses, models, theories, laws)
which, at a specific time, is accepted by the scientific community as being valid and reasonably correct
• Science - the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and
behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment
• A way of examining, explaining, reflecting on, and predicting natural phenomena that employs
systematic observation, experiment, and logical inference to formulate and test hypotheses with the
aims of establishing, enlarging, and confirming knowledge and the laws of nature.
• Occasionally, science undergoe's a paradigm shift as long-established principles and laws are overturned
by new discoveries.
• Science refers both to a system for producing knowledge and to the knowledge Produced from that
system.
• The system has evolved over many years and is slowly but constantly changing.
Classification of the sciences
• Natural sciences (physics, chemistry, biology and astronomy)
• Formal sciences (mathematics and logic)
• Social sciences (sociology, psychology, anthropology and political studies)
• Humanities (history, philosophy, linguistics, archaeology, palaeontology, theology and the arts )
The social sciences are characterised by:
• They study human and cultural activity directly, often in the present rather than in the past.
Divisions within the social sciences – behavioural sciences (sociology, psychology and education) and the
broader group of social sciences (anthropology).
, The scientific community
• Scientific community: a group sharing the same general norms for both research activity and
acceptance of scientific findings and
• Every scientific community has its own avenues of communication, socialisation and social control.
• Share ethical principles, beliefs and values, techniques, training and career paths.
• The norms of the scientific community are universalism, organised scepticism, disinterestedness,
communalism and honesty.
The scientific method and attitude
• Scientific method – the ideas, rules, techniques, and approaches that the scientific community uses.
• Scientific attitude – a way of looking at the world. It is an attitude that values craftsmanship, with pride
in creativity, high-quality standards and hard work.
Seven main approaches to social sciences
1. POSITIVISM: • Seeks to apply the natural science model of research to investigations of social
phenomena.
• A belief that the methods and procedures of the natural sciences are
appropriate to the social sciences.
• The objects of the social sciences (people) are not an obstacle to the
implementation of the scientific method.
• Believe that an objective reality exists outside of personal experience that has
demonstrable laws and mechanisms that can reveal cause-and-effect
relationships.
• The researcher should adopt a distant, detached, neutral and non-interactive
position.
• Prefer analysis or outside observer interpretations of data – social relationships
should be linked to precise measurements of the social world.
• These processes lead to the empirical test and confirmnation of the laws of
social life as outlined in theory.
• Belief that only those phenomena that are observable, can validly be warranted
, as knowledge.
• Theory expresses and reflects the accumulated findings of empirical research
(facts). Such findings are often referred to as laws, empirically established
regularities.
• Scientific theories are seen as providing a backing to empirical research, because
hypotheses derived from them are then submitted to empirical test – Implies
that science is deductive
• A hypothesis is derived in order to enable the scientist to test the theory; if the
hypothesis is rejected the theory must be revised.
• Positivism often takes a particular stance in relation to values. The scientist must
not have any values which may impair his/her objectivity.
• Draw a sharp distinction between scientific issues and statements and
normative ones. Positivists recognise that they can investigate the implications
of a normative position, they cannot verify or disprove the position itself.
2. POSTPOSITIVISM: • Postpositivists argue that reality can never be fully apprehended, only
approximated.
• Postpositivism relies on multiple methods to capture as much of reality as
possible.
• Emphasis is placed on the discovery and verification of theories.
• Traditional evaluation criteria, such as internal and external validity, are
stressed, as is the use of qualitative procedures that lend themselves to
structured (sometimes statistical) analysis.
• A precise question and hypothesis are thus not developed before starting the
study – focuses on the understanding of the study as it evolves
• Believe that a variety of variables cannot always be controlled, and that
positivist research is often difficult and impractical.
• Believe research is important and every effort should be made to execute
research projects.
• It is often difficult to establish a cause-and effect relationship. It can rather be
said that there are tendencies towards a specific notion which can by repetition
bring valuable data to the fore.
• Is a much freer paradigm and allows for the development of alternative research
strategies
• Researchers believe in multiple perspectives from participants rather than a
, single reality.
• Freedom to use more subjective measures of gathering information.
• The degree of honesty of the researcher may be a huge problem. Subjectivity in
a study can make the data useless. All researchers should be able to explain and
defend their research methodologies and make provision for replication of the
study.
• Allows for research on a small scale using very creative methodologies.
3. CONSTRUCTIVISM: • Participants become active and involved in all the phases of the process.
Participants can influence the course of the total process and have a say in
everything that takes place.
• Involve participants in choosing and formulating the problem to be studied, the
measuring instrument and the strategy.
• The philosophy has changed from tight control over the total process
(positivism) to full empowerment of the participants.
• Interested in an open and democratic relationship between the participant and
researcher.
• It is believed that the outcome of the project is enhanced and the results more
accurate when participants are involved throughout.
• Disadvantages:
1. High drop-out figure
2. Participants trying to dominate the process.
3. Time consuming.
4. INTERPRETIVE • Also called the phenomenological approach, that is an approach that aims to
APPROACH: understand people.
• Max Weber and Wilhelm Dilthey.
• Dilthey types of science:
1. The natural sciences - based on Erklarung, or abstract explanation
2. The human sciences - rooted in empathetic understanding, or Verstehen, of
the everyday lived experience of people in specific historical settings.
• All human beings are engaged in the process of making sense of their worlds and
continuously interpret, create, give meaning, define, justify and rationalise daily
actions.
• Related to hermeneutics, a theory of meaning - emphasises a detailed
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