AQA Psychology for A Level Year 1 & AS - Student Book
A succinct and complete summary of the Attachment topic of AQA A-level Psychology. Using only this material when revising for the Attachment section of Paper 1 I was able to achieve an A* in psychology.
Attachment Revision Notes
Caregiver-infant interactions
Two types of a caregiver-infant interactions (reciprocity and interactional synchrony):
Reciprocity - Refers to responding to the actions of another with similar actions. Infants co-ordinate their
actions in response like a conversation. This basic communication rhythm is important in forming
attachments.
What is an alert phase?
- Periodic phases where babies signal that they are ready for interaction.
- Feldman and Eidelamn (2007) - parents typically pick up on 2/3rd or alert phases
- From 3 months this interaction becomes more frequent, both mother and baby paying closer
attention to each other's verbal and facial signals
Active involvement
- Traditional views of childhood have portrayed babies in a passive role, however it seems that
babies as well as caregivers actually take quite an active role.
- Brazelton (1975) described the baby caregiver interaction as a ‘dance’ because each partner
responds to the other person’s moves.
Interactional synchrony - when two people interact, they tend to mirror the actions of what the other is
doing in terms of facial expressions and body movements, this includes imitating emotions as well as
behaviours.
Meltzoff and Moore (1977) - observed the beginning of interactional synchrony in babies as young as two
weeks old.
An adult displayed one of three facial expressions or one of three distinctive gestures. The baby’s response
was filmed and labelled by independent observers. Baby's expressions and gestures were more likely to
mirror those of the adults more than chance would predict i.e. there was a significant association.
Supporting research for the importance for Attachment
- Isabella et al. (1989) - observed 30 mothers and babies, measuring their levels of synchrony and
quality of attachment relationship. They found that high levels of synchrony were associated with
better quality mother-baby attachment.
Evaluation
Filmed observation in a laboratory
This means that other activity, that might distract a baby, can be controlled. Also, using films means that
observations can be recorded and analysed later. Therefore having filmed interactions means that more
than one observer can record data and establish the inter-rater reliability of observations. Finally, babies
don’t know they are being observed, so their behaviour does not change in response to observation (as
usually the case in overt observations). Therefore, good reliability and validity.
Difficulty observing Babies
Young babies lack coordination and much of their bodies are almost immobile. The movements being
observed are just small hand movements or subtle changes in expression. It is also difficult to determine
what is taking place from the baby’s perspective. For example, we cannot know whether a movement such
as a hand twitch is random or triggered by something the caregiver has done.
Developmental importance
Simply observing behaviour does not tell us its developmental importance. Feldman points out that ideas
like synchrony and by implication reciprocity simply give names to patterns of observable caregiver and
baby behaviours. These are robust phenomena in the sense that they can be reliably observed, but they
still may not be particularly useful in understanding child development as it does not tell us the purpose of
these behaviours.
Counter - Evidence such as that found by Isabella et al suggests that achievement of interactional
synchrony predicted the development of a good quality attachment.
Extra - Practical value
Crotwell et al. found that a 10 minute Parent-Child Interaction Therapy improved interactional
synchrony in 20 low income mothers and their preschool children.
,Schaffer’s stages of attachment
Shaffer and Emerson’s research
Study involved 60 babies, all from Glasgow and the majority from skilled working class families.
Researchers visited babies and mothers in their own homes every month for the first year and again
at 18 months. The researchers measured the children's separation anxiety and stranger anxiety. They
identified four distinct stages in the development of infant attachment behaviour, which make up their
stage theory
Stage 1: Asocial stage
- In a baby’s first few weeks of life
- Observable behaviour towards humans and inanimate objects is fairly similar (hence ‘asocial’)
- Not entirely asocial as even at this stage show signs that they prefer to be with people
- Tend to show a preference for the company of familiar people and are more easily comforted
by them
- At this stage the baby is forming bonds with certain people and these form the basis of later
attachments
Stage 2: Indiscriminate attachment
- From 2 to 7 months
- Now show a clear preference for being with other humans rather than inanimate objects
- Recognise and prefer the company of familiar people
- However, usually accept cuddles and comfort from any person (hence ‘indiscriminate’)
- Do not usually show separation anxiety when caregivers leave their presence or stranger
anxiety in the presence of unfamiliar people
Stage 3: Specific attachment
- From around 7 months
- Start to display the classic signs of attachment towards one particular person
- These signs include stranger anxiety, especially when their attachment figure is absent, and
separation anxiety from their attachment figure
- At this point a specific attachment with a primary attachment figure has formed.
- This is usually the person who offers the most interaction and responds to the baby’s ‘signals’
with the most skill (is the baby’s mother in 65% of cases)
Stage 4: Multiple attachment
- Shortly after primary attachment is formed they usually extend this behaviour to multiple
attachments (called secondary attachments)
- By the age of one year the majority of babies had developed multiple attachments
Evaluation
High external validity
Most of the observations were made by parents during ordinary activities and reported to the
researchers. Highly likely that the participants behaved naturally while being observed.
Counter -
Unreliable data - as the different mothers can be more or less sensitive to their children's signals
Bias - mothers are unlikely to be objective observers, playing up to social desirability
Poor evidence for asocial stage
Young babies have poor coordination and are fairly immobile. It is therefore difficult for mothers to
observe and report back to researchers on signs of anxiety and attachment in this age group.
Meaning a child could appear asocial whilst actually being quite social.
Real world application overcoming caring issues
For example in day care and nursery centres this understanding of the stages of attachment can be
used to best cater for the babies needs. Babies in stage one and two can be comforted by any skilled
adult however children in the specific attachment stage may be more problematic. Day care can be
better planned using Schaffer and Emerson’s stages.
, The role of the father
Attachment to fathers
Shaffer and Emerson (1964) - mother attachment first so more important
They found that the majority of babies first became attached to their mother at around 7 months. In only 3%
of cases the father was the first sole object of attachment. In 27% of cases the father was the joint first
object of attachment with the mother. However, fathers go on to become important attachment figures with
75% of the babies studied by Schaffer and Emerson forming an attachment with their father by the age of
18 months. This was determined by the fact that the babies protested when their father walked away - a
sign of attachment.
Distinctive role for fathers
Grossman (2002) - Role of play and stimulation not nurturing/sensitive
Grossmann et al. carried out a longitudinal study where babies' attachments were studied until they were
into their teens. Quality of a baby’s attachment with mothers but not fathers was related to attachment in
adolescence. This suggests that attachment to fathers is less important than attachment to mothers.
However, Grossmann et al. also found that the quality of fathers’ play with babies was related to the quality
of adolescent attachments. This suggests that fathers have different roles from mothers - one that is more
to do with play and stimulation, and less to do with emotional development.
Fathers as primary attachment figures
Field (1978) - primary caregiver - able to be nurturing and sensitive - gender less important
Interestingly there is some evidence to suggest that when fathers do take on the role of primary caregiver
they are able to adopt the emotional role typically associated with mothers.
For example, in one study Field filmed 4 month-old babies in face to face interaction with primary caregiver
mothers, secondary caregiver fathers and primary caregiver fathers. Primary caregiver fathers, like primary
caregiver mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating and holding babies than the secondary caregiver
fathers. Smiling, imitating and holding babies are all part of reciprocity and interactional synchrony which
are part of the process of attachment formation. So it seems that fathers can provide the responsiveness
required for a close emotional attachment but perhaps only express this when given the role of primary
caregiver.
Evaluation
Confusion over research questions
The question, ‘what is the role of the father?’ in the context of attachment has two real answers. In respect
to fathers as the secondary attachment figures they behave differently from mothers and have a distinct
role (the role of play and stimulation). However in respect to fathers as primary attachment figures they
have found that fathers can take on a ‘maternal’ role. The answer to the question therefore depends on
what specific role is being discussed.
Conflicting evidence
Longitudinal studies such as that of Grossman et al. have suggested that fathers as secondary attachment
figures have an important and distinct role in their children’s development, involving play and stimulation.
However, studies (e.g. McCallum and Golombok 2004) consistently show that children growing up in a
single mother and lesbian parent families do not develop differently from children in two-parent hetrosexual
families. Meaning that the question as to whether fathers have a distinctive role remains unanswered.
However, These lines of research may not in fact be in conflict. It could be that when present, fathers tend
to adopt a distinctive role, but families can adapt to not having a father.
Real world application
Heterosexual parents can be informed that fathers are quite capable of becoming primary attachment
figures. Also lesian-parent and single-mother families can be informed that not having a father around does
not affect a child’s development. This means that parental anxiety about the role of fathers can be reduced
and that the best decision for the family can be made.
Bias in this research
Preconceptions about how fathers do or should behave can be created by stereoptical accounts and
images of parenting roles. These stereotypes (e.g. fathers are not primary caregivers, fathers are stricter,
ect.) may cause unintentional observer bias whereby observers ‘see’ what they expect to see rather than
recording objective reality.
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