Essay
Retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting
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Psychology A Level AQA Essay Plan. Information taken directly from the textbook and displayed in an essay format, for AO1 and AO3.
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Explanations of forgetting – retrieval failureAO1 BRIEF: 2 marks
AO3: 1-3 marks
Encoding specificity principle
Aicore There is a wide range of impressive research that supports the
Information initially placed in memory are associated with cues
retrieval failure explanation of forgetting, as there have been many
stored at the same time, which have to be available at the time of
studies carried out looking into this explanation. One prominent
recall to prevent ‘forgetting’. This is caused by retrieval failure, as a
memory researcher goes as far to argue that retrieval failure is
lack of cues mean we are not able to access available memories.
perhaps the main reason for forgetting in the LTM. This supporting
Tulving discovered the encoding specificity principle which states
evidence increases the validity of the explanation, which is a clear
that if a cue is to help us recall information, it has to be present at
strength of the idea. This is especially true when the supporting
both encoding and retrieval. As well as this, forgetting may also
evidence shows us that retrieval failure not only occurs in real life
occur as a result of a different cue being present. Some cues are
situations, but also in highly controlled conditions of the lab.
linked to material in a meaningful way, stimulating STM recall.
Others are encoded in a less meaningful way; context-dependent
forgetting and state-dependent forgetting.
AO3: 4-6 marks
AO1 EXPLAIN: 4 marks
Despite there being lots of supporting evidence for this explanation,
Context-dependent forgetting all of the research that has been carried out tends to look into the
same thing. For example, there are many problems with the
A study into deep-sea divers working underwater was carried out by
encoding specificity principle – a main one being that it is not
researchers. In this the situation is crucial, as divers have to
testable. In experiments where a cue produces the successful recall
remember instructions given before carrying out the task. Divers had
of a word, we automatically assume that the cue must have been
to learn a list of words either underwater or on land and then recall
encoded at the same time as learning, and if not we assume that the
them either underwater or on land – this therefore created 4
cue was not encoded at the same time as learning. However, these
conditions. In two of these conditions, the environmental contexts of
are just assumptions, and we have no way of establishing whether or
learning and recall matched, and accurate recall was 40% lower in the
not the cue has been encoded. This is a limitation, as the idea of
non-matching conditions compared to the matching. The external
cues being encoded is essential to the explanation. Not being able to
cues available at learning were different to the ones at recall, which
test whether cue actually help us the remember, and a lack of cues
led to retrieval failure.
causes forgetting is vital. Due to this, it is questionable as to whether
the explanation is worthless and should be completely abandoned.
AO1 DISCUSS – 6 marks AO3: 7-8 marks
State-dependent forgetting Another limitation of the retrieval failure explanation is that real life
applications, due to contextual cues, do not actually explain much
Research into state-dependent forgetting has been conducted, where forgetting. For an effect to be seen, different contexts have to be very
participants were given anti-histamine drugs, which mildly made the different. For example, to find an environment as different from land
participants drowsy. This creates an internal psychological state, as underwater would be very difficult. Also, learning something in
different to the ‘normal’ awake and alert state. Participants learnt a one room and recalling it in another is unlikely to cause much
list of words and passages, either on the drug or not on the drug, to forgetting, as the environments are quite similar.
later recall either on the drug or not on the drug. This again created 4
conditions. Performance on the memory test was significantly worse
in the mismatched conditions, showing that when the cues are
absent (e.g. recalling information when drowsy, having been alert
during learning) then there is more forgetting.
Notes: AO3: 9-10 marks
Meaningful encoded cues are used in many mnemonic techniques. As well as this, the context effect may be related to the kind of
Context-dependent forgetting: external cues:
4 conditions:
memory being tested. The underwater experiment was later
replicated, but instead used a recognition test instead of recall,
-learn on land, recall on land where participants had to state whether or not they recognised a
-learn on land, recall underwater
word read to them from the list, rather than retrieving it
-learn underwater, recall underwater
-learn underwater, recall on land independently. There was no context-dependent effect in this
recognition test – performance was the same in all four conditions –
State-dependent forgetting: internal cues and so this is a further limitation of context effects, as it means that
Anti-histamine drugs treat hay fever
4 conditions:
the presence or absence of cues only affects memory when you test
in a certain way.
-learn on drug, recall on drug -learn on drug, recall not on drug
-learn not on drug, recall on drug -learn not on drug, recall not on drug
Word count: AO1 – 321, AO3 – 438, Total - 759
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